ได้รับการตีพิมพ์เป็นเล่มเดี่ยวแล้ว อ่านได้ที่ สันติภาพเกิดจากอิสรภาพและความสุข: Peace Through Freedom and Happiness
This article has been published separately with the same name. Please read at... Foundations of Buddhist Social Ethics
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In the Kālāma-Sutta, one of the Buddha’s discourses best known to Western scholars, the Buddha says, among other things, “Do not go merely by tradition.” This saying shows that tradition does not hold a very important place in Buddhist thought. It teaches that tradition is not something to be clung or attached to and also implies that change can be commendable or at least acceptable.
To understand even more clearly what its importance is, tradition has to be distinguished from the original and authentic. By the original and authentic, I mean the original and authentic ideas and practices intended by the Buddha himself as can be found in or interpreted directly from the words of the Pāli Canon, or Theravāda Buddhist scriptures. Though the original and authentic are a source and foundation of the Buddhist tradition, they are not the same as tradition. Tradition has developed out of many factors and components in addition to the original and authentic ideas and practices. In truth, many accretions can be found in tradition. This is why reformers, reformists and others in favor of change have been able to use the original and authentic as an effective weapon against tradition and as their reference for recommending and encouraging change.
So far in contemporary Thai Buddhism, change seems to have been identified with or have resulted from the clash and conflict between tradition and modernization. In order to see this more clearly, we should look at the general picture of traditional Buddhism in Thailand.
Thailand has been called a Buddhist country. The great majority, that is, about 95 percent of her population of approximately 48 million, are Buddhists. The Thai Buddhist institution is very large. It consists of over 26,000 monasteries scattered all over the country, as the residences of over 300,000 monks and novices, giving Thailand the appellation of “the Land of the Yellow Robes.” The King of Thailand shall, according to the constitution, be a Buddhist. Every Thai male citizen is expected to spend a period of time in his life, preferably at least three months, as a monk in a monastery. In fact, most of the Thai kings have followed this tradition. Moreover, all Thai Buddhists are unified under the school of Theravāda Buddhism. All Thai monks are united under a single ecclesiastical government recognized by the laws of the country. The monks enjoy not only a separate government but also rich support both from the secular government and from the public.
Deeper into the fabric of the nation, Buddhism has been one of the main foundations of Thai culture. It has done much to mould the Thai mind and Thai character. The aspect of the Thai personality that has caused Thailand to be called “the Land of Smile” must be credited mainly to the teachings of Buddhism. Buddhist monasteries have been centers of culture, of community activities, of social life, and of popular education.
At the present moment, however, the happy picture of tradition presented above has begun to be deformed and disfigured. Recently many blemishes have begun to appear on the face of traditional Thai Buddhism. In fact, this has not been a sudden occurrence. It has been a long process of internal decay that allowed things to appear to be in good shape until a time came for all the rotten parts to show up their true conditions abruptly and almost simultaneously and be ready to be broken or damaged by slight clashes or strokes. The following may be cited as some principal examples of the rotting conditions that show up when unguided traditional Thai Buddhism clashes with modernization.
Today’s monasteries are not what they used to be. They are no longer centers of education for the masses, although they are still the main avenue of education and social mobility for the rural poor and underprivileged. Further, monasteries are no longer the main centers of community and social life. Though in most rural areas they still retain this status to a large extent, it is in the process of decline. Most of the monks’ social roles have been usurped by government officials, businessmen and so on. These changes, however, should not be regarded as absolutely detrimental or undesirable. Some changes are merely natural and social necessities that should happen when the time comes. What is more serious and undesirable are the following situations which began to appear very recently.
Monastic education for the monks and novices, which also means education for the rural poor, has been in a state of rapid decline. Many big Pāli schools have closed, while those which continue suffer from sharply decreasing numbers of students. The number of Pāli examinees decreases in spite of the increase of the total monastic population. Secular schools run by outsiders, lay parties and even businessmen enjoy a rapidly increasing number of monks and novices as their students to the dissatisfaction of the administrators of the Sangha, or Buddhist Order, and at the expense of the authority and leadership of the Sangha government. The generation gap widens between more traditional, older administrative monks and more modernist, activistic younger monks. Some groups of younger monks have even formed the organization called “The Younger Sangha,” challenging the authority of the Sangha in various ways, as by publishing newspapers critical of the activities of the Sangha administration. In addition, modern interpreters of Buddhism, such as the Venerable Buddhadāsa, independent Abhidhamma schools and new meditation centers have come into existence. Some develop different interpretations of the Buddha’s teachings or different methods of practice and criticize one another for misinterpretation and wrong practices. They neither think of the central Sangha administration as the authority to refer to nor show their trust in its intellectual leadership. Concurrently, while interest in Buddhist teachings and meditation has begun to increase, among the intellectuals, college and university students who go to different Ahhidhamma schools and meditation centers bring into the campuses different interpretations of the teachings and different methods of practice. At the educational institutions they develop different Buddhist groups and many of these Buddhist students become divided. Moreover, some monastic movements develop outside of the Sangha administration. Some movements are suspected of political involvement, some others of political back-up. At least one such movement has proclaimed its independent existence without the acceptance of the administrative authority of the Sangha Supreme Council, which is the central Sangha administration. In doing this, they can point to weaknesses, drawbacks and perversions in the Sangha itself. This adds even more to the weakening of the Sangha’s leadership, and its administrative authority is now being challenged as it has never been before.
On the other hand, most of the younger monks, almost all of whom have been recruited from poor, provincial, peasant families, leave the monkhood after some years of monastic educational training to enjoy some privileges granted by social mobility. This leads to the even more serious problem of the shortage of manpower and qualified personnel in the Sangha. At the same time, many urban people, often those among the elite, in ignorance of tradition and the background of the situation, criticize these ex-monks for exploiting the monastery and the people’s support. They also criticize monks who study in modern Buddhist institutions, like Buddhist universities, of taking advantage of the monkhood and of the people’s labor in order to snatch away occupations from their lay counterparts. Ex-monks, therefore, do not enjoy as much of a respected status in urban society as former generations did half a century ago.
Meanwhile, the Sangha administrators, the abbots and other elderly monks, having been deprived of or lost their social roles, especially their educational responsibilities, have now turned to engage themselves in the construction and repair of monastic buildings, in holding ceremonies and in performing rites connected with magic and superstition. They seem to have turned Buddhism into a new age of grandiose monastic buildings, huge Buddha images and luxurious religious ceremonies. This has caused them to depend more upon persons with power and influence, that is, politicians and the rich, and it has brought them into closer relationship with the latter. At the same time, for the populace, stress has been placed on the merit-making activity of making contributions for huge buildings and luxurious ceremonies. All of these have led to the criticisms of some groups of the Sangha elite both for political affiliation and for economic detriment. Beyond merit-making by giving the aforementioned sorts of contributions, the populace have to resort to fortune-telling and superstitious practices. There are also some so-called Buddhist centers that seek and show specialization in communication with the world of the spirits, healing by the spirit, and proving magical power.
The more activist modern younger monks, on the other hand, react against this limitation of the monks’ roles within the confines of monastery walls. They interpret the Buddha as instructing the monks to play their suitable roles to benefit society. They suggest that the traditional social roles of the monks be revived and adjusted to suit the modern changing society. With these ideas in mind, they have engaged in some kinds of community development and social works. The Sangha administration, also, in cooperation with government agencies, has begun to implement some socio-religious programs of moral, cultural and material help to rural people, such as the Dhammadūta or Dharma Messengers Project, the Dhammacārika or Dhamma Wanderers Project, and lastly, the Commune Unit for Public Instruction Project, all of which aim to benefit society as well as to achieve the security of both the country and the religion. To run these programs at the working level, the Sangha administration has to depend on the active younger monks for manpower. These programs have thus served as the meeting points where the older and the younger monks come to cooperate and work together, though only in practical activities, not in ideology.
It should be noted that in the Buddhist tradition, when the Sangha declined or became weakened by internal dissensions, perversions or corruptions in the past, the kings—as Buddhist rulers—often rendered help by the rectification and purification of the Sangha. Considering the current Thai Buddhist situations, it seems that the time has come again for this kind of rectification and purification to be undertaken. Unfortunately, it also seems that with the current political instability, modern constitutional governments have to be concerned about their own political stabilization rather than doing anything that might run the risk of losing the status quo. Thai Buddhism, thus, seems to be left at the mercy of fate.
So far, however, we have looked only on the negative side of the situations. Looking optimistically, many of the aforementioned developments point to a good sign and carry a potential for revival of the tradition within themselves. First, we see the interest in Buddhist teachings and practices growing, as among the intellectuals. They are now in search of the true teaching and the correct practice. Second, a need for revival or reform has been clearly felt. This can be witnessed by the appearance of meditation centers both in rural and in urban areas, the increase in the number and activities of Buddhist groups in institutions of higher learning, the active roles assumed by the new monastic movements, and the various kinds or challenges to the Sangha administration. The problem seems to be that when these modern people return to their tradition to seek for answers, those who should provide the answers are not prepared to do so, and thus cannot satisfy the need or fulfill their task. This is the point where tradition clashes with modernization instead of assimilating the latter.
This conflict between tradition and modernization can be more clearly seen through an historical analysis. The encounter between tradition and modernization which began in Thailand about a century ago can be roughly divided for the present purpose into two periods. The first is the period of separation and isolation when those who grew up in tradition clung to the tradition and, in their effort to preserve the tradition intact, tried to shut themselves off from modernity and against any change. At the same time the so-called modernists were interested only in modern things, ideas and practices and were extremely anxious to receive and adopt them. Being unopposed by the tradition, they simply ignored it. Modernization was thus allowed to proceed alongside the tradition, so that the two were relatively separated and isolated without one directly challenging the other.
The second period came very recently. It may be considered a period of change in modernization and of conflict with tradition. It developed when the modernists began to be disillusioned and dissatisfied with modernization and turned to find meaning and answers from tradition. However, as the traditionalists have long been far removed from the real world of changing values, they cannot supply the answers or satisfy the need of the modernists. Moreover, their tradition has been preserved in a distorted or deformed condition because of overprotection. This caused the modernists confusion and made them come into conflict with tradition. Thus, some modernists feel that they are forced to return to the original and authentic instead of tradition. A social phenomenon which evidences this confusion and conflict can be seen in the attempt of some modern people to identify a Thai national character and values which they can accept as worthy to emulate.
Let us examine further the causes of the current situation. We may well ask why those in the tradition are not prepared to satisfy the needs of modern people when the latter turn to tradition for answers. Why are these modern people not able to make use of tradition to find the answers by themselves? And, in sum, why have people been divided into traditionalists and modernists? Why, instead of making a gradual harmonious change by assimilating selected modern elements into the dynamic tradition, have they made distinction among themselves as the traditional and the modern and let conflict and confusion arise?
Truly, there are many factors that are, together, responsible for the current situation. I will cite only some of the fundamental causes and conditions. One is the lack of a really demanding face-to-face challenge or threat to the tradition. Since the beginning of modernization in Thailand, tradition has continued alongside of modernization. Without threatening or challenging each other directly, tradition and modernization have proceeded in separation and isolation from each other and in ignorance of each other. Moreover, in this period of mutual isolation, tradition has even been coddled. In order to change and adjust, pressure or tension is often needed. Sometimes, even a degree of persecution can be helpful, as it used to be oftentimes in the history of other lands and nations.
The second, and most important cause of the current conflict is ignorance. This is related to the aforementioned separation and isolation. As those in conflict are ignorant of one another, no dynamic interaction, no assimilation, adaptation or desirable change can occur. The problem is that those who live in tradition and try to preserve the tradition not only are ignorant of the modern changing world in which their tradition exists, but they also do not truly know their own tradition which they are desperately trying to preserve. They are so submerged under the tradition as to be blinded by it. They are not able to see beyond it. If any adaptation to modernization had happened or were to happen in tradition, the traditionalists would immediately make it a hard and fast part of the tradition and use it as a weapon against further change. This can be illustrated by the reforms made by His Royal Highness Prince Vajirañāṇa, a supreme patriarch a little over half a century ago.
Modern people, on the other hand, have been alienated from their tradition by modern systems, especially the modern system of education. They are ignorant of tradition and cannot make effective use of it—or even tend to treat it in a bad way. This can be exemplified by some groups of leftist modernists who recently, rather than suggesting a new method of study, urged that a lot of traditional Thai literature such as the Trai Phum (Pali: Tebhūmi-kathā) or the Treatise on the Three Worlds of Gods, Men and Hell be burnt because of their deluding nature. Another example is a new movement that has urged a return to the original and authentic teachings of the Buddha while rejecting and condemning the whole tradition that has evolved since.
But now, in this new period of conflict and confusion, there are some hopeful signs, as we observe a change among many modern people. Being disillusioned and dissatisfied with modernism, they let themselves be exposed to many ideas and modes of life and try to avail themselves of these sources to effect a change. This time tradition is sought, scrutinized for meaning and also challenged. It may result in the rejection of tradition, chaos—or it may result in a harmonious change in which tradition continues as a part of the change. We also see some who resort to the original and authentic as the true source of tradition in order to find a meaning that can undermine tradition and be, itself, the foundation for creating change. We see others who seek for meaning within tradition itself by making a new interpretation of it that will lead to a meaningful reform.
In these difficult times, the best route is the way of knowledge and wisdom. A knowledgeable leadership is needed. All possible sources should be consulted, whether the original and authentic, the tradition, or modern conditions. Both one’s own society and the surrounding, changing world should be studied. Both one’s own tradition and other traditions should be studied. By the study of tradition, we will learn to appreciate many parts of it. Many other parts that we cannot appreciate, we may at least understand.
All in all, we should be able to effect good changes in which all the best and relevant parts of the original and authentic, the tradition, and modernity find their suitable places.
This period of conflict and confusion in Thailand may be either the worst or the best of times. It could easily turn into turmoil and crisis, but it is also open to and ripe for creative and beneficial change. If Buddhism survives the present turmoil, it may emerge either utterly decayed or—hopefully—purified and reformed. In the past, when the mechanism of change was power, some kings or powerful authorities might sometimes choose the direction and the contents of change that they themselves were in favor of. Without this autocratic power, change may be based on knowledgeable leadership, and it may indeed be a change for the best, one in which all the best elements are incorporated.
I. In Pali, there are three terms that are often used in reference to holy places, namely,
a) that which is worthy of respect or worship; object or place of homage
b) that which is heaped or built up; raised heap of earth; mound
c) that which reminds; reminder; monument.
2. thūpa (Sanskrit: stūpa), a tope, tumulus or cairn, which is often used as a synonym for cetiya.
3. saṁvejanīyaṭṭhāna, a place apt to cause a feeling of urgency or enthusiasm.
II. Cetiyas or caityas existed before the time of the Buddha. In the Pali Canon, references are made to the cetiyas in the republic of Vajji, the honoring and worship of which was recommended by the Buddha to the Vajjians as a condition of their welfare and which the Buddha praised as pleasant places.
The Buddha speaks of four types of persons as worthy of stupas, namely, the Buddha, the private Buddha, the Arahant disciple of the Buddha and the righteous universal monarch.
He also cites four places associated with himself as the Four Saṁvejanīyaṭṭhānas, visits to which are recommended to Buddhists, and the sight of which can arouse in devotees a calm, pure and happy state of mind that leads to good rebirths. These four places are:
(Mahāparinibbāna-Sutta, Dīghanikāya, vol. 10)
III. By the time of the Commentaries (approx. 900 years after the Buddha), four kinds of cetiyas had been established which included all holy things and places connected with the Buddha, viz.:
(Kh.A.221; J.IV.228;
Vinaya-Subcommentary I.263)
IV. Other remarks and observations:
Before the time of the Buddha, the term cetiya meant a seat or residence of a god (devaṭṭhāna) as a sacred place. The Buddha encouraged the traditions of cetiya- or stupa-worship and respect to many specific cetiyas or stupas, but a new meaning was given to it. An example can be found in a story in the Commentary on the Dhammapada. At one time the Buddha was on the way from Sāvatthī to Varanasi (Pali: Bārāṇasī) when he reached a devaṭṭhāna (seat of a god or a temple). The Buddha sent for a Brahmin who, when approaching him, paid respect not to him, but to the devaṭṭhāna. The Buddha approved his action, and to clarify his attitude he preached the Ghaṭikāra-Sutta in the Majjhimanikāya, in which he identified the devaṭṭhāna or cetiya as a site where a former Buddha used to reside.
(Dh.A.251)
The respect to a cetiya or stupa-worship can bring about these benefits:
• It can arouse a calm, joyful and purified state of mind that leads to the development of concentration and other virtues, or faith and spiritual strength that serve as a primary step toward further and more energetic practice of the teachings.
• As the term saṁvejanīyaṭṭhāna indicates, the cetiya reminds one of the law of impermanence that is immanent in life and all component things. It stirs up the feeling of urgency which helps one lead a life of heedfulness, and be earnest in doing good and in treading the Noble Path.
• For a mature practitioner, the reflection on impermanence leads further to the insight into the true nature of things and thus to the final freedom of mind.
At a temporal and social level, cetiya- or stupa-worship serves as a factor to unify people and help them to identify themselves with their faith.
I. Thai Buddhist Ceremonial Calendar
II. Classification by Association with Buddhism
1. Ceremonies associated with events in the life of the Buddha and the Dispensation, viz.,
a) Visākha-Pūjā (Worship on the full moon of the 6th lunar month in commemoration of the birth, enlightenment and decease of the Buddha), believed to have been celebrated since the Sukhothai Period about 700 years ago, is the most important and most widely observed of all the four worship-ceremonies of this group. It is a national holiday in Thailand.
b) Aṭṭhamī-Pūjā (Worship on the eighth day of the waning moon of the 6th lunar month in commemoration of the cremation of the body of the Buddha) has been less and less observed, and is not recognized as a public holiday. The sermon delivered on this occasion deals especially with the distribution of the relics of the Buddha.
c) Āsāḷha-Pūjā (Worship on the full moon of the 8th lunar month in commemoration of the First Sermon of the Buddha), the latest of this group, first celebrated in 1958, is one among the current national holidays. It is commemorated as the day of the Buddha’s turning the Wheel of the Dhamma, his winning of the first disciple who was then ordained as a bhikkhu and thus the completion of the Triple Gem of the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha. However, as the Āsāḷha-Pūjā falls on the same day as the eve of the Beginning of Rains Residence, activities on the two occasions are sometimes confused. In fact, most of the monastic rites and merit-making activities performed on that day are parts of the ceremonies associated with rains residence observed long before Āsāḷha-Pūjā came into existence.
d) Māgha-Pūjā (Worship on the full moon of the 3rd lunar month), a national holiday first celebrated about a century ago in the reign of King Rama IV, is observed to commemorate the Great Assembly of the Buddha’s Disciples in the ninth month after his enlightenment, at which the Buddha expounded the Fundamental Teaching or the gist of Buddhism called ovāda-pātimokkha. The Assembly is marked by the union of four factors, viz.,
Though there are some merit-making activities such as offering food to monks on these four days, merit-making is not the central part of the ceremony. In other words, these are not occasions on which lay Buddhists show their support to the monks. Rather, they are occasions for all Buddhists—monks and laymen—to join in worshipping the Triple Gem, commemorating the great events in the life of the Buddha and the Dispensation. This being so, it is the monks who are expected to play the active role of leading the congregation in worship, and to see that the laypeople gain proper benefit from these occasions.
Activities on the four days of this group follow the same pattern. They center in the evening, usually comprising circumambulation, sermons and chanting of Pali suttas and excerpts connected with the event commemorated.
2. Ceremonies connected with the Discipline and monastic life are, in contrast to the pūjā or worship ceremonies of the first group, primarily the concern only of monks as the latter are bound by disciplinary rules to observe them. However, it was not long before lay devotees came in to support the monks. Then, merit-making activities developed as the means for the laity to encourage the monks in their observance of the Discipline and other practices of the monastic life. The lay devotees also find these occasions good opportunities for them to gain merit, and it is in this way that they come to play a part in these ceremonies. Thus, in popular Buddhism, these ceremonies confirm the laypeople’s relationship with the monks and their role as supporters of the monks, the monasteries and the Buddhist religion through merit-making activities.
Belonging to this group are:
a) The Beginning of Rains Residence, which falls on the first day of the waning moon of the 8th lunar month (usually in the later part of July), is based on a disciplinary rule that enjoins the monks to take a permanent residence throughout the first three months of the rainy season, and thus primarily to be observed only by monks. As evidence of the laypeople’s support of the monks, the beginning of the monks’ rains residence is preceded by the laity’s merit-making ceremony of food-offering, the offering of rains-cloth to the monks, and the presentation of a rains-residence candle (a large candle which can burn throughout the three months of the rains residence) to the monastery.
As the custom of temporary monkhood as a means of socialization and public education has developed in Thailand, the Beginning is preceded by a period of the ordinations. As all monks stay in the monastery during the rains residence, it is easier for newly ordained monks to find senior monks to teach them. This is the factor that has made the rains residence a period of comparatively more serious study and meditation. Lay devotees follow the monks’ examples by observing the precepts more strictly and other religious practices more actively and more regularly.
The Beginning of Rains Residence is also marked by the rite of pardoning at which all monks ask one another for pardon so that they will spend the rains residence together in harmony devoting themselves to serious study and practice.
b) The End of Rains Residence comes as a mere corollary of the Beginning of Rains Residence on the full moon of the 11th lunar month (usually in late October). It is marked by the “Invitation,” a ceremony prescribed by the Discipline as a formal act of the Sangha in which monks invite one another to speak, for the purpose of correction, of any offenses or unbecoming behavior they have seen, heard or suspected to have been committed during the rains.
The merit-making ceremony on this occasion developed later as the laity came in to show their support of the monks. Its special name, “devorohaṇa,” the Descent of the Buddha from the World of Gods, is taken from the legendary great event of the Buddha’s returning from heaven to the world of man after preaching the Abhidhamma to the gods during a rains residence there. The legend says that on that occasion the Buddha opened the three Worlds of Heaven, Earth and Hell, making the residents of those worlds see one another. Laypeople offer food to the monks by putting it in their bowls as they walk by in a single file headed by a Buddha-image.
The End of Rains Residence is also the end of the period of serious study and practice and the end of world-renunciation by temporary monks. It thus marks the beginning of the resumed wandering of the more permanent monks and the returning to the world on the part of temporary younger monks. This process of ending and beginning is usually complemented by the Kathin ceremony.
c) Kathin (Annual robe-presentation) is a formal act of the Sangha to be performed in the last month of the rains following the rains residence. As the fourth and last month of the rainy season has been set aside for the seeking and making of robes as a preparation for resumed mendicancy, a disciplinary rule further prescribes that all the monks who have completed the rain residence together in a monastery seek pieces of cloth, make them into a robe, and present it by vote in assembly to one among them whose robe is most worn. The process of making the robe must be finished in one and the same day, requiring every monk to participate. Here lies the spirit of Kathin, that is to say, the test of unity and harmony of those who have spent the community life together for the whole period of the rainy season.
Here again lay devotees come in to offer their help to the monks. Moreover, as this ceremony can be performed during only one specific month and one monastery can perform it only once within that limited period of time, the Kathin has been regarded as a very special occasion. Starting as a merit-making ceremony of presenting the Kathin robe to the monks, it has developed into a big festival with celebrations. There are many Kathin processions going to present robes to monasteries in different communities, or in faraway provinces. The spirit of unity, harmony and cooperation, expands beyond monastic communities to become unity and cooperation among all Buddhists, both monks and laypeople.
3. Ceremonies connected with folk cultures and non-Buddhist elements are those which have been appropriated by Buddhism or accepted into the Buddhist fold by assimilation or by the incorporation of Buddhist elements. The following are included in this group:
a) Songkran (Water-throwing festival), the traditional Thai New Year, falls on April 13 in the hottest time of the year in Thailand. It is believed to be Hindu in origin. It is a big festival celebrated for three to seven days each of which begins with merit-making ceremonies of offering food to monks. The festival is characterized by the ceremony of bathing monks and elderly people and the throwing of water on one another among younger people. At the hottest time, water best symbolizes a happy beginning by its twofold function of making new through cleaning and making happy through refreshment. Younger people pay respects and express their good wishes to monks and elderly people by bathing the monks and by bathing and giving new clothing to the elderly people, and receiving in return blessings from them. Traditionally they are said to go to ask the monks and elderly people for their blessings. The festival ends with water-throwing, an act both of refreshment and merry-making.
b) Phuet Mongkhon (Blessing for plant-fertility), a royal ceremony in early May for the beginning of the agricultural cycle, is a supplementary Buddhist part invented by King Mongkut just a century ago to add a Buddhist dimension to the age-old first plowing ceremony of Hindu origin. The Buddhist ceremony is performed in the Grand Palace without the knowledge of most people, where monks are invited to chant selected Pali words of blessing for the fertility of plants throughout the kingdom.
c) Sārd (Giving merit to the departed), a ceremony of Hindu and animistic origin, falls on the new moon of the 10th lunar month (usually toward the end of September or in early October), the time when dead people are believed to be released temporarily from the world of the dead to see their relatives in the human world. Originally, people make food offerings to their departed ancestors and relatives (perhaps by leaving them at the foot of a tree.) Having been incorporated into Buddhism, the ceremony consists only in the merit-making ceremony of offering food to monks and dedicating or transferring the merit resulted therefrom to the dead. In many parts of the country, however, both practices are still followed.
d) Loy Krathong (Offering-floating festival), a festival of obscure origin, comes at the most seasonable time on the full moon of the 12th lunar month (usually in late November) when rivers and canals in Thailand are at the highest tide and full to the brim, or often even overflow at the end of the rainy and Kathin season. People make small vessels or baskets of banana leaves and float them with flowers, lit candles and incense-sticks inside. This is an act of worship, but people disagree about what is worshipped. Some say they dedicate the offering to the Buddha’s footprint on the shores of the river Nammadā. Others give different explanations. Beyond this there is little connection with Buddhism. However, annual festivals at many monasteries are celebrated at this time. It should also be noted that the time of this festival is concurrent with the harvest period when some regions have just finished harvesting and others are commencing it.
In addition to these celebrations, there is still another grand merit-making ceremony which does not fall into the previous three categories or calendrical stipulations, and which varies from region to region. This is Thet Mahachat (“Sermon on the Great Life”), also called Khatha Phan (“Story of 1,000 stanzas”) and known in the northeast of Thailand as Bun Phra Wes (“Merit-making in connection with Prince Vessantara”). This is the story of the last former life of the Buddha when he was fulfilling the Perfection of Almsgiving. In northern Thailand, it is celebrated in the twelfth lunar month (most often in November). In the northeast, it is usually held in the fourth lunar month (usually in March). In other regions, it occurs in April or during the rains residence. The spirit of this ceremony may be interpreted as an attempt to impart selected Buddhist values to the people. Besides the importance as the last former life of the Buddha, the reason for selecting this jātaka may be because the Perfection of Giving, which is the main theme of the story, is directly connected with merit-making, and because of the princely and sovereign position of the Bodhisatta in that jātaka. It happened that the poet who first gave an honored place to this jātaka in Thai literature was a great king of the early Ayutthaya period.
Classified in order of popularity and prevalence of observance or celebration, ceremonies with elements of fun and amusement usually come first. Roughly arranged, the order would appear as follows:1
Not included on the public calendar are annual festivals in celebration of important objects of worship at some prominent monasteries such as the Buddha’s relics at the Golden Mountain at Wat Saket in Bangkok, at the Pathom Chedi (“first cetiya”) in the central region, at Phra That Phanom in the northeast, at Wat Hariphunchai in the north, at Wat Phra Mahathat in the south, and the Buddha’s footprint at Wat Phra Putthabat in the central region. Many of these are celebrated on the full moon of the 12th lunar month and others at varied times from the 3rd to the 6th lunar months.
In addition to the above, there are private or household merit-making ceremonies and celebrations for different occasions, either regular or occasional, which are usually classified as auspicious and non-auspicious (i.e. funeral). Auspicious ceremonies include birthday, ordination, wedding, house-blessing, laying a foundation stone, and various other celebrations. Funeral and memorial ceremonies include merit-making while the body lies in state, dedicatory ceremonies on the seventh, fiftieth and one-hundredth days after death, cremation, merit-making at the collection or housing of bone-relics and annual memorial dedicatory merit-making ceremonies.
These rituals and ceremonies serve as a channel for the monks to gain access to people of all levels and walks of life, as a linkage between people of different generations, as an agent to bring together people from different localities, and as a factor to make the monastery the center of a community. They encourage an esprit de corps and help to create and strengthen cooperation, harmony and unity in Thai society. Through them ethical and spiritual values are implanted in the public mind, cultural values are perpetuated, and entertainments are given an instructional and moral dimension.
I. The code of fundamental rules for the Buddhist orders of monks and nuns is called Pātimokkha. There are two Pātimokkha, viz.,
The 227 rules for monks (the Bhikkhu-pātimokkha) are grouped into seven classes arranged in the order of the seriousness of the offenses from major to minor offenses. The first class is the group of four gravest offenses entailing expulsion from the Order, called Pārājika (Defeat), viz.,
The following classification of the 227 rules may give a general picture of the Buddhist monastic life and a general idea of the spirit of the monk’s discipline:
The above classification is only a rough one. The total number exceeds 227 because some rules can be classified into several groups. For example, the rule that a monk shall not receive a robe from a nun can be classified into groups 1 and 4.
II. The fundamental rules of the Pātimokkha are sometimes called the basic/primary discipline of the Holy Life (ādibrahmacariyaka). Besides these fundamental rules, there are still other rules of the discipline outside of the Pātimokkha which are much larger in number and they are sometimes called the advanced/secondary discipline (abhisamācārika). Examples of this kind are rules concerning head-shaving, cutting of nails, rains residence, formal meeting of the Sangha, legal proceedings, punishment of perverse monks, election of monks in charge of communal duties, etc.
In addition to the canonical discipline, there have been developed in different places local customs that vary from country to country and from region to region. Many of these customs are intended to encourage, to support or to strengthen the strict observance of the Discipline, such as the use of a receiving-cloth to receive offerings from a woman, and the shaving of the eye-brows as practiced by the Thai monks. These practices, though to be distinguished from the original rules proper, are often good contributions to the integrity of the Discipline and thus to the lastingness of the Sangha.
III. The following four similes convey very well the spirit of the Discipline, namely,
1. The simile of the bird that, in possession of only two wings, is free and always ready to go anywhere (Dīghanikāya)
2. The simile of flowers that, being tied together by thread as a garland, stay in order, beautiful, unscattered by the wind (Vinaya)
3. The simile of the bees that roam about collecting nectar to build a beehive, not hurting the color and smell of the flowers (but helping the plant to grow and spread) (Dhammapada)
4. The simile of the ground on which all who do their work on land have to depend (Saṁyuttanikāya)
Simile 1 points to the spirit of simple life based on contentment and wanting little or having few wishes (as especially evidenced by the rules concerning property and material requisites) that allow monks to have physical freedom and mobility favorable to the development of their own spiritual goals and to their wandering to act as spiritual friends to laypeople, a role enjoined by the Buddha in sending his first group of disciples in the first year after the Enlightenment to go on journeys for the benefit of the many, for the good and happiness of the many, out of compassion for the world.
Simile 2 implies the spirit of preserving harmonious communal life and the stability of the Sangha in which all the members though recruited from different castes and classes become equal before the Discipline, unified, in good order, graceful and firm. Harmonious communal life and the stability of the Sangha provide favorable conditions both for individual spiritual pursuits and for the activities to benefit others.
Simile 3 represents the spirit of maintaining good and beneficial relationship with the lay society. The Discipline makes the monks’ life almost absolutely dependent on the laypeople for material sustenance, but only in such a way that they will not become a burden to the latter.
Living in contentment with few wishes, the monks are expected to consume the least possible requisites to maintain health and physical well-being, not to fall to luxury. There are many disciplinary rules forbidding the monks from begging or asking laypeople for food and other requisites. Their relationship with the laity should be only for the growth of virtue and progress on the Noble Path.
Simile 4 embodies the spirit of sīla (moral conduct) under the garb of the Discipline as the basis for all higher practices and further progress toward the final goal of nibbana. Here the Discipline holds the place of basic and elementary training wherein many training rules are intended to make the monk’s life well aloof from worldly temptations and distractions that may obstruct or delay spiritual progress.
IV. An effective practice of the Discipline involves an awareness of its spirit and an understanding of its place in the overall scheme of practice and its scope and limitation of function.
The whole Buddhist practice consists in the threefold training of sīla (morality) samādhi (or better, adhicitta: cultivation of mental qualities) and paññā (wisdom). Discipline is included in, or often equated with, sīla or morality. It is basic or elementary training in that it makes the practitioner prepared for more advanced training in samādhi and paññā and makes his communal and social life conditions favorable to his training and practice. This is effectuated at three levels, namely:
1. At the level of the individual’s personal life, the practice of the Discipline leads to a wholesome state of mind characterized by the absence of remorse, and of fear of punishment, revenge and blame. It makes the person confident and makes the mind peaceful through joy, relaxation and tranquility, and thus easy to concentrate.
2. At the level of communal life, the Discipline makes all members live together peacefully and in harmony. Not disturbed, distracted or occupied by conflict, quarrels, disputes and troubles, the monks find a favorable environment for mental development. Peaceful surroundings tend to make the mind peaceful. In such a community, the members can act as good friends to help one another progress on the path.
3. At the level of social life, a society haunted by crimes, political troubles, immoral activities and poverty is not favorable to the practice of the Dhamma. People live in fear or are too preoccupied with their own safety and security (or with sensual pleasures) and often fail to concern themselves with spiritual matters or to support the monks. On the other hand, in a peaceful, pious and moral society, monks can find material support, can freely move from place to place on their preaching journey, and thus can devote themselves both to the meditation and to activities for the benefit of others. The monks’ rightful relationship with the people as the latter’s good friends (kalyāṇamitta) who are active in giving the Dharma (dhamma-dāna) coupled with the monks’ own exemplary moral life faithful to the Discipline which is the basis of that relationship can instill and strengthen in the people faith in the Dharma and can contribute much to the morality, security and peacefulness of the society.
To live up to the spirit of the Discipline, the monk should also keep in mind the following ten purposes of monastic legislation, viz.,
(Vin.III.20)
At another place (the Aṅguttaranikāya), ten more purposes are specified including “For helpfulness to the laity”.
Blind observance of and wrong attitude to the Discipline can lead astray and even become an obstacle to the progress on the Noble Path. Such blind and wrong practice is usually caused by the ignorance of the spirit of the Discipline and of its place in relation to other parts of the practice. Some may keep strict discipline out of wrong desires such as for praise or in order to be reborn in heaven. Others may exalt themselves while being contemptuous of others out of pride in the strict discipline they keep. Such attitudes amount to attachment to mere rules and rituals (sīlabbata-parāmāsa), a fetter that binds man to suffering. The Discipline rightly observed, on the contrary, becomes a firm foundation for the development of mental qualities and wisdom that lead on toward the perfect freedom of nibbana.
Yathāyogaṁ “Dhammāti vuccanti.
(They are called “Dhamma” since, in accordance with their applications,
(PsA. 20)
Resolution of the term:
rootsuffix
dhar + ramma = Dhamma
√dhar = to uphold; maintain.
I. Nature as the truth; cosmic law; nature and the law of nature as it is, uncreated, not invented or decreed, to be discovered; the law and all that are subject to the Law:
II. Subjective Dhamma; all in I., as counterpart of Mano, to be perceived, mentalized or conceptualized by the mind:
III. The moral part or ethical aspect of natural law, as recommended for, or believed, often traditionally or conventionally, to contribute to, a good life or a good social order; the moral law and all that are subject to the moral law; any traditional, customary or conventional practice:
IV. The Truth or natural Law as discovered, interpreted and preached by the Buddha; the Teaching (in contrast to the Vinaya), as one of the Three Gems of the Buddhists; that which is taught or to be studied:
V. (in judicial usage) A matter of disciplinary or legal significance in which judgment is needed to secure justice or righteousness; the procedure toward, or an offense and punishment based on, such judgement:
Some specific meanings in specific contexts are also suggested by the Commentators, such as concentration (samādhi) and wisdom (paññā).
It should be noted that the above applications and meanings often overlap.
“Atha kho sāriputtassa paribbājakassa imaṁ dhammapariyāyaṁ sutvā virajaṁ vītamalaṁ dhammacakkhuṁ udapādi: Yaṅkiñci samudayadhammaṁ, sabbantaṁ nirodhadhammanti.
(Now when the Wanderer Sārīputta heard this statement of the Dhamma, the spotless, immaculate vision of the Dhamma arose in him: Whatsoever is of a nature to arise is all of a nature to cease.)
(Vin.4/66/74 = I.40)
“Jātidhammānaṁ Bhikkhave sattānaṁ evaṁ icchā uppajjatīti.
(Monks, in beings liable to birth, a wish like this arises.)
(D.10/297/343 = II.307)
“Mamañhi Ānanda kalyāṇamittaṁ āgamma jātidhammā sattā jātiyā parimuccanti, jarādhammā sattā jarāya parimuccanti ...
(Indeed, Ānanda, depending on me as a good friend, beings who are of the nature to be reborn are liberated from rebirth, beings who are of the nature to decay are liberated from decay ...)
(S.19/7/3 = V.3)
“Atha kho seṭṭhī gahapati diṭṭhadhammo pattadhammo viditadhammo ...pe... vesārajjappatto aparappaccayo satthu sāsane.”
(Then the rich merchant saw and reached and found the Dhamma ... he gained perfect confidence and became independent of others in the Teacher’s Dispensation.)
(Vin.4/27/32 = I.16)
“Paṭisallānaṁ jhānamariñcamāno,
dhammesu2 niccaṁ anudhammacārī,
Ādīnavaṁ sammasitā bhavesu
eko care khaggavisāṇakappo.”
(Abandoning neither seclusion nor meditation, practicing constantly in conformity to the Dhamma, seeing the danger of existences, let one walk alone like a rhinoceros.)
(Sn.25/296/338 = 69)
“Passa dhammaṁ3 durājānaṁ Sampamūḷhettha aviddasū”
(See here the Dhamma, hard to understand, at which the fools become bewildered.)
(Sn.25/406/482 = 762)
“Hetumhi ñāṇaṁ dhammapaṭisambhidā ...pe... yehi dhammehi te dhammā jātā bhūtā sañjātā nibbattā abhinibbattā pātubhūtā, tesu dhammesu ñāṇaṁ dhammapaṭisambhidā.”
(Knowledge of cause is analytic insight of the Dhamma…. states from which these states are born, become, begotten, existent, fully existent, apparent; knowledge of those states is analytic insight of the Dhamma.)
(Vbh.35/779–780/399 = 293)
“Luddho atthaṁ na jānāti, Luddho dhammaṁ na jānāti.”
(The lustful knows not profit, the lustful sees not reason.)
(It.25/268/295 = 84)
“Kusalā dhammā, akusalā dhammā, abyākatā dhammāti.”
(Wholesome states, unwholesome states, and indeterminate states)
(Dhs.34/1/1 = 1)
“Uppādā vā bhikkhave Tathāgatānaṁ, anuppādā vā Tathāgatānaṁ, ṭhitā va sā dhātu dhammaṭṭhitatā dhammaniyāmatā: Sabbe saṅkhārā aniccāti ... Sabbe saṅkhārā dukkhāti ... Sabbe dhammā annattāti.”
(Whether Perfect Ones appear or not, there remains this element, this structure of things, this orderliness of things: All formations are impermanent; ... All formations are suffering; ... All things are not-self.)
(A.20/576/368 = I.286)
“Katame dhammā saṅkhatā? Yeva te dhammā sappaccayā, teva te dhammā saṅkhatā. Katame dhammā asaṅkhatā? Yo eva so dhammo apaccayo, so eva so dhammo asaṅkhato.”
(Which are the states that are conditioned? It is those states which have a cause that are conditioned. Which are the states that are unconditioned? It is the state which is without a cause that is unconditioned.)
(Dhs.34/702/277)
“Sabbe dhammā nālaṁ abhinivesāyāti.”
(All phenomena are not fitting for clinging to.)
(M.12/434/464 = I.251)
“Sabbe dhammā sabbākārena Buddhassa Bhagavato ñāṇamukhe āpāthaṁ āgacchanti.”
(All dhammas come into the range of vision in all their aspects in the face of the insight of the Blessed Buddha.)
(Nd1.29/320/217 = 178)
“Ye te cakkhuviññeyyā rūpā ...pe... ye te manoviññeyyā dhammā aviññātā aviññātapubbā, na ca vijānāsi, na ca te hoti vijāneyyanti; atthi te tattha chando vā rāgo vā pemaṁ vāti.
No hetaṁ bhante.”
(Those forms cognizable by the eye ... those mind-objects cognizable by the mind, states not cognized, never before cognized, which you cognize not now nor wish to do so, have you desire, lust and fondness for them? Surely not, lord.)
(S.18/132/90 = IV.73)
“Idhāvuso bhikkhu cakkhunā rūpaṁ disvā ... manasā dhammaṁ viññāya, piyarūpe dhamme adhimuccati, appiyarūpe dhamme byāpajjati, anupaṭṭhitakāyasati ca viharati parittacetaso, tañca cetovimuttiṁ paññāvimuttiṁ yathābhūtaṁ nappajānāti.”
(Herein, friends, a bhikkhu, seeing a form with the eye …. cognizing a mind-object with the mind, feels attachment for the object that charms, feels aversion from the object that displeases, abides with mindfulness on the body unestablished, and his thoughts are mean. He realizes not that deliverance of mind, that deliverance of wisdom, in its true nature.)
(S.18/389/229 = IV.185)
“Tasmiṁ kho pana samaye dhammā honti, khandhā honti, ...”
(Now, at that time, there are states, there are the aggregates, …)
(Dhs.34/99/33 = 121)
“Idha bhikkhave bhikkhu dhammesu dhammānupassī viharati pañcasu nīvaraṇesu.”
(Here a Bhikkhu abides contemplating mental objects as mental objects in terms of the five hindrances.)
(D.10/290/335 = II.300)
“Dhammo have rakkhati dhammacāriṁ,
Dhammo suciṇṇo sukhamāvahāti”
(Truly righteousness protects the practicer of righteousness; righteousness when well-practiced brings happiness.)
“Na hi dhammo adhammo ca, ubho samavipākino;
Adhammo nirayaṁ neti, dhammo pāpeti sugatiṁ.”
(For righteousness and unrighteousness do not both have equal results; unrighteousness leads to hell; righteousness brings one to a good bourn.)
“Tasmā hi dhammesu kareyya chandaṁ,
Iti modamāno sugatena tādinā;
Dhamme ṭhitā sugatavarassa sāvakā,
Niyyanti dhīrā saraṇavaraggagāmino.”
(Therefore, one should show zeal for virtuous acts, thus rejoicing because of the venerable Well-farer. Standing in righteousness, the disciples of the supreme Well-farer, taking the best and excellent refuge, being wise, became delivered from suffering.)
(Th.26/332/314 = I.303-305)
“Tena hi tvaṁ tāta dhammaṁ yeva nissāya dhammaṁ sakkaronto dhammaṁ garukaronto .... dhammaddhajo dhammaketu dhammādhipateyyo dhammikaṁ rakkhāvaraṇaguttiṁ saṁvidahassu.”
(Therefore, my son, relying just on the Dhamma, you should honor the Dhamma, ...; with the Dhamma as banner, with the Dhamma as standard, with the supremacy of the Dhamma, you should provide the right watch, ward and protection for folk within your realm.)
(D.11/35/65 = III.61)
“Bhāgī vā Bhagavā dasannaṁ tathāgatabalānaṁ... channaṁ Buddhadhammānanti Bhagavā.”
(Or, as the Blessed One is sharer of the ten powers of the Tathagata ... of the six qualities of the Buddha, he is, therefore, Bhagavā.)
(Nd1.29/231/174 = 143)
“Dhammenāhaṁ bhikkhave tevijjaṁ Brāhmaṇaṁ paññāpemi, nāññaṁ lapitamattena.”
(Monks, I declare a Brahmin to be the possessor of the threefold lore by right practice, not some other so called because of his mere mutterings.)
(It.25/279/305 = 98)
“Yāvakīvañca Ānanda Vajjī apaññattaṁ na paññapessanti, paññattaṁ na samucchindissanti, yathāpaññatte porāṇe vajjidhamme samādāya vattissanti, vuḍḍhiyeva Ānanda Vajjīnaṁ pāṭikaṅkhā, no parihāni.”
(Ānanda, as long as the Vajjians avoid enacting the unenacted or abolishing existing enactments and proceed in accordance with the ancient Vajjian traditions as instituted, they may be expected to prosper and not decline.)
(D.10/68/87 = II.74)
“Ahampajja imañca rattiṁ imañca divasaṁ abrahmacariyaṁ pahāya brahmacārī ārācārī virato methunā dhammā.”
(So also do I abide this night and day, by abandoning unchastity, dwell observing chastity, keeping remote, abstaining from sexual intercourse.)
(A.20/510/270 = I.212)
“So ñātidhammo ca ayaṁ nidassito,
Petāna pūjā ca katā uḷārā.”
(The Dhamma toward relatives has thus been shown; and high honor to departed ones has been done.)
(Kh.25/8/11 = 6)
“Sace kho tvaṁ devate rukkhadhamme tiṭṭheyyāsi, siyā te bhavanaṁ yathā pureti ... Idha Brāhmaṇa Dhammika samaṇo akkosantaṁ na paccakkosati ... evaṁ kho Brāhmaṇa Dhammika samaṇo samaṇadhamme ṭhito hoti.”
(Yet, deva, shouldst thou keep the Dhamma of the tree, thy home would be as of yore ... Thuswise, Brahman Dhammika: A recluse returns not the insult of the insulter ... thus keeps a recluse the Dhamma of the recluse.)
(A.22/325/415 = III. 371)
“Yo ca atthaṁ anatthañca,ubho niccheyya paṇḍito;
Asāhasena dhammena samena nayatī pare,
Dhammassa gutto medhāvī dhammaṭṭhoti pavuccati.”
(The wise man should investigate both right and wrong. The wise man who leads others unarbitrarily, but with justice and impartiality, who is a guardian of righteousness is called one who abides by righteousness.)
(Dh.25/29/49 = 256)
“Dhammena te kāpurisa,mukhañca kuṇalīkataṁ
Akkhīni ca paggharanti,yaṁ tvaṁ parassa dānassa,
Akāsi kuṇaliṁ mukhanti.”
(The wretched man! It is by fairness that your mouth has been made contorted and your eyes protruding, as you contorted your mouth at the gift of others.)
(Pv.26/106/192 = II.931)
“Yo vo Ānanda mayā dhammo ca vinayo ca desito paññatto, so vo mamaccayena satthā.”
(The Doctrine and Discipline, Ananda, which I have taught and enjoined upon you are your teacher when I am gone.)
(D.10/141/178 = II.154)
“Idha bhikkhave ekacco puggalo ārāmaṁ gantā hoti abhikkhaṇaṁ bhikkhūnaṁ santike dhammassavanāya; tassa bhikkhū dhammaṁ desenti ādikalyāṇaṁ majjhekalyāṇaṁ pariyosānakalyāṇaṁ sātthaṁ sabyañjanaṁ.”
(Herein a certain person frequents the monastery to hear the Dhamma in the presence of the monks. The monks teach him the Dhamma that is lovely in the beginning, lovely in the middle, lovely in the ending, both in spirit and in letter.)
(A.20/96/164 = I.130)
“Idha bhikkhu dhammaṁ pariyāpuṇāti: suttaṁ, geyyaṁ, veyyākaraṇaṁ, gāthaṁ, udānaṁ, itivuttakaṁ, jātakaṁ, abbhutadhammaṁ, vedallaṁ.”
(Herein, monk, a monk learns the Dhamma, to wit, the discourses, songs, prose-expositions, verses, psalms, thus-said discourses, birth-stories, marvelous ideas and catechisms.)
(A.22/73/98 = III.86)
“Kaṁsi tvaṁ āvuso uddissa pabbajito; ko vā te satthā; kassa vā tvaṁ dhammaṁ rocesīti.”
(To follow whom, friend, have you gone forth? Or who is your teacher? Or whose doctrine do you approve?)
(Vin.4/64/73 = I.40)
“Pakappitā saṅkhatā yassa dhammā,
Purakkhatā santi avīvadātā;
Yadattani passati ānisaṁsaṁ,
Taṁ nissito kuppapaṭiccasantiṁ.”
(For him whose theories are matters of preoccupation, are created and are held as his mandate though unpurified, he still lives relying on that insecure peace, because he cares for the profits for himself out of those theories.)
(Sn.25/410/487 = 784)
“Dhammā vuccanti dvāsaṭṭhi diṭṭhigatānīti.”
(The sixty-two theories (or views) are called ‘Dhamma.’)
(Nd1.29/91/85 = 72)
“Uddiṭṭhā kho āyasmanto cattāro pārājikā dhammā.”
(Venerable sirs, the four rules of defeat have been recited.)
(Vin.1/300/220 = III. 109)
“Tamenaṁ saddheyyavacasā upāsikā disvā tiṇṇaṁ dhammānaṁ aññatarena vadeyya: pārājikena vā saṅghādisesena vā pācittiyena vā ... tena so bhikkhu kāretabbo. Ayaṁ dhammo aniyato.
(A woman lay-follower whose word can be trusted having seen would say that it constituted one of three offenses, namely, one of Defeat or entailing Initial and Subsequent meeting of the Sangha or Expiation….. he should be dealt with under whichever one that woman should say. This case is indefinite.)
(Vin.1/632/433 = III.188)
“Dhammaṁ caranto sāmikaṁ parājeti, āpatti pārājikassa; dhammaṁ caranto parajati, āpatti thullaccayassa.”
(If he takes the case to court and the owner loses, he commits the offense of Defeat; if he takes the case to court and he himself loses, he commits the offense of Serious Transgression.)
(Vin.1/99/91 = III.50)
“Yatra hi nāma Tathāgato atīte Buddhe . jānissati: .... evaṁsīlā te Bhagavanto ahesuṁ itipi, evaṁdhammā ... Evaṁpaññā te Bhagavanto ahesuṁ itipi.”
(... inasmuch as he should know of former Awakened Ones ... that ... these Lords were of such moral habits ... such mental attainments ... such intuitive wisdom.)
“Yassete caturo dhammā, saddhassa gharamesino;
Saccaṁ dhammo dhiti cāgo, sa ve pecca na socati.”
(Whosoever as a faithful layman has these four virtues: truthfulness, self-training, steadfastness and generosity, will not grieve hereafter.)
(Sn.25/311/361 = 188)
“Dhammasaddo tāva” Sabhāva-paññā-puñña-paññatti-āpattipariyatti-nissattatā-vikāra-guṇa-paccaya-paccayuppannādīsu dissati.
1. Ayaṁ hi “Kusalā dhammā, akusalā dhammā, abyākatā dhammāti ādīsu sabhāve dissati.
2. Yassete caturo dhammā ... saccaṁ dhammo dhiti cāgo ... na socatīti ādīsu paññāya.
3. Na hi dhammo adhammo ca ... dhammo pāpeti sugatinti ādīsu puññe.
4. Paññattidhammā niruttidhammā adhivacanadhammāti ādīsu paññattiyaṁ.
5. Pārājikā dhammā saṅghādisesā dhammāti ādīsu āpattiyaṁ.
6. Idha bhikkhu dhammaṁ jānāti-suttaṁ geyyaṁ veyyākaraṇanti ādīsu pariyattiyaṁ.
7. Tasmiṁ kho pana samaye dhammā honti; dhammesu dhammānupassī viharatīti ādīsu nissattatāyaṁ.
8. Jātidhammā jarādhammā maraṇadhammāti ādīsu vikāre.
9. Channaṁ Buddhadhammānanti ādīsu guṇe.
10. Hetumhi ñāṇaṁ dhammapaṭisambhidāti ādīsu paccaye.
11. Ṭhitāva sā dhātu dhammaṭṭhitatā dhammaniyāmatāti ādīsu
paccayuppanne daṭṭhabbo”.
(PsA.19–20)
“Dhammasaddo pariyatti-sacca-samādhi-paññā-pakati-puññaāpatti-suññatā-ñeyya-sabhāvādīsu dissati. Tathā hissa
1. Idha bhikkhu dhammaṁ pariyāpuṇātīti ādīsu pariyatti attho.
2. Diṭṭhadhammoti ādīsu saccāni.
3. Evaṁdhammā te Bhagavanto ahesunti ādīsu samādhi.
4. Saccaṁ dhammo dhiti cāgo, sa ve pecca na socatīti ādīsu paññā.
5. Jātidhammānaṁ bhikkhave sattānaṁ evaṁ icchā uppajjatīti ādīsu pakati.
6. Dhammo have rakkhati dhammacārinti ādīsu puññaṁ.
7. Tiṇṇaṁ dhammānaṁ aññatarena vadeyya, pārājikena vā saṅghādisesena vā pācittiyena vāti ādīsu āpatti.
8. Tasmiṁ kho pana samaye dhammā hontīti ādīsu suññatā.
9. Sabbe dhammā sabbākārena Buddhassa Bhagavato ñāṇamukhe āpāthaṁ āgacchantīti ādīsu ñeyyo.
10. Kusalā dhammā akusalā dhammāti ādīsu sabhāvo attho.”
(ItA.46)
(English translations can be found above.)
“Dhammo sabhāve pariyatti-paññā-
Ñāyesu sacca-ppakatīsu puññe
Ñeyye guṇ-ācāra-samādhisūpi
Nissattatā-pattisu kāraṇādo.”
(Abhp.784)
N.B. Ñeyya = Saṅkhāra vikāra lakkhaṇa nibbāna paññatti.
“Dhammo tipi saṅkhepato paccayassetaṁ adhivacanaṁ. Paccayo hi yasmā taṁ taṁ dahati pavatteti vā sampāpuṇituṁ vā deti tasmā dhammoti vuccati. Pabhedato pana yokoci phalanibbattako hetu ariyamaggo bhāsitaṁ kusalaṁ akusalanti ime pañca dhammā dhammoti veditabbā.”
(‘Dhammo’ is briefly a term for a condition. For since a condition necessitates whatever it may be, makes it occur or allows it to happen, it is therefore called ‘dhamma’. But in particular the five things, namely, (i) any cause that produces fruit, (ii) the Noble Path, (iii) what is spoken. (iv) what is profitable, and (v) what is unprofitable, should be understood as Dhamma.)
(Vism.3/7 = 441; NdA.2/35)
“Vayadhammāti pavattivasena parihāyanasabhāvā.”
(The term ‘Vayadhammā’ means in terms of their occurrence they have a nature to ruin.)
(NdA.1/250)
“Jarādhammanti jarāsabhāvaṁ.”
(‘Jarādhammaṁ’ means having decay as one’s nature.)
(AA.2/513)
“Jarādhammoti jarāsabhāvo, aparimutto jarāya, jarā nāma mayhaṁ abbhantareyeva pavattatīti.”
(‘jarādhammo’ means having old age as my nature, not freed from old age; old age will surely come in the course of my life.)
(AA.2/152)
“Dhammanti khandhāyatanādibhedaṁ yathābhūtañāṇena catusaccadhammaṁ vā maggena viditvā.”
(The term ‘Dhammaṁ’ is explained as follows: having known with knowledge according to reality the ideas like the Aggregates and the sense-bases; or having known with the Path the idea of the Four Noble Truth.)
(SnA.2/210)
“Dhammesūti vipassanūpagesu pañcakkhandhādidhammesu.”
(‘Dhammesu’ means in the ideas like the Five Aggregates that belong to Insight Meditation.)
(SnA.1/154)
“Diṭṭho ariyasaccadhammo etenāti diṭṭhadhammo... Tenassa saccābhisambodhiṁyeva dīpeti.”
(Since the Dhamma of the Noble Truth has been seen by him, he is called ‘diṭṭhadhamma’ ... By that term the Scripture-compiler indicates the person’s realization of Truth.)
(VinṬ.4/40/80)
“Dhammañca bhikkhusaṅghañcāti ... So (dhammo) atthato ariyamaggo ceva nibbānañca.”
(In the phrase ‘the Dhamma and the Sangha of bhikkhus’ ... that Dhamma by its meaning is the Noble Path and Nibbāna.)
(VinA.1/194)
“Dhammanti pariyattidhammena saddhiṁ navavidhampi lokuttaradhammaṁ.”
(The term ‘Dhamma’ (in Dhammānussati) means the ninefold supramundane states together with the Holy Texts to be studied.)
(VinṬ.1/317)
“So (dhammo) atthato ariyamaggo ceva nibbānañca ... na kevalañca ariyamaggo ceva nibbānañca, apica kho ariyaphalehi saddhiṁ pariyattidhammopi.”
(That term ‘Dhamma’ by its meaning is the Noble Path and Nibbana ... truly, not only the Dhamma and Nibbana, but also the Holy Texts for study together with the Noble Fruitions.)
(UdA.362)
“Dhammoti vā kāraṇaṁ paccayoti attho.”
(Or else, ‘Dhammo’ means a cause, that is to say, a condition.)
(VismṬ. 3/219)
“Atthanti luddho puggalo lokiyalokuttaraṁ atthaṁ na jānāti. Dhammanti tassa hetuṁ.”
(The term ‘Atthaṁ’ is explained thus: The covetous person does not know mundane or supramundane benefit. ‘Dhamma’ means the cause of that benefit.)
(MdA.1/82)
“Iti me mano ahosi iti dhammāti ettha pana manoti bhavaṅgacittaṁ. Dhammāti tebhūmikadhammārammaṇaṁ.”
(Now, in the expression ‘Such was my mind; such were my mental experiences’ the mind means the subliminal consciousness; mental experiences mean mental objects belonging to the Three Planes of Existence.)
(NdA.2/18)
“Munāti mano vijānātīti attho ... Dhammānanti nibbānaṁ muñcitvā avasesā dhammārammaṇā.”
(Since it knows it is called ‘Mano’, that it is to say, it understands ... the term ‘Dhammānaṁ’ means all the remaining mind-objects except Nirvāṇa.)
(NdA.2/301)
“Dhammakiccanti puññakammaṁ.”
(‘Dhammakiccaṁ’ means a meritorious act.)
(VinṬ.3/408)
“Dhammoti dasavidhakusalakammapathadhammo dāna-sīlabhāvanā-dhammo vā.”
(‘Dhammo’ means the virtue of the tenfold wholesome course of action or the virtues of liberality, morality and mental development.)
(SnA.1/316)
“Dhammassāminti maggadhammassa janakattā ... dhammassāmiṁ dhammissaraṁ dhammarājaṁ dhammavasavattinti attho.”
(‘Dhammassāmiṁ’ means because he gave birth to the right practice of the Path ... (the Blessed One) is the master of the Dhamma, that is to say, the Lord of the Dhamma, the King of the Dhamma, or the Supreme Authority of the Dhamma.)
(SnA.1/201)
“Dhammenāti ñāyena sammāpaṭipattisaṅkhātena hetunā kāraṇena. Yāya hi paṭipadāya tevijjo hoti, sā paṭipadā idha dhammoti veditabbā.”
(‘Dhammena’ means by right method, by a cause, by a reason known as the right practice. Truly, it is the course of practice by which a person becomes a possessor of the Threefold Knowledge that is to be known as ‘Dhamma.’)
(ItA.408)
“Dhammanti pubbe vuttaṁ duvidhaṁyeva (pariyattidhammaṁ paṭivedhadhammaṁ vā).”
(‘Dhammaṁ’ means the two kinds (of the Holy Texts for Study or the States of Realization.)
(SnA.2/163-4)
“Dhammāti diṭṭhiyo.”
(‘Dhammā’ means views.)
(NdA.1/250)
“Dhammaṁ carantoti bhikkhusaṅghe vā rājakule vā vinicchayaṁ karonto.”
(‘Taking a legal action’ means seeking judgment in the community of the monks or in the royal court.)
(VinA.1/410)
“Sikkhāpade pana sati te saṅgho sikkhāpadaṁ dassetvā dhammena vinayena satthu sāsanena niggahessati.”
(But, when the rule has been laid down, the Sangha, having referred to the rule, will suppress them according to the law, according to the Discipline, according to the teaching of the Master.)
(VinA.1/262)
“Dhammenāti ādīsu dhammoti bhūtaṁ vatthu. Vinayoti codanā ceva sāraṇā ca.”
(In the expressions like ‘Dhammena’ the term ‘Dhamma’ means a real account; ‘Vinaya’ means accusation and investigation.
(VinṬ.2/53)
N.B.: In rendering into English the illustrative quotations from the Pali Canon, I often drew upon the English translation published by the Pali Text Society.
A.Aṅguttaranikāya
AA.Commentary on Aṅguttaranikāya
Abhp.Paṭṭhāna
D.Dīghanikāya
Dh.Dhammapada
Dhs.Dhammasaṅgaṇī
It.Itivuttaka
ItA.Commentary on Itivuttaka
Kh.Khuddakapāṭha
M.Majjhimanikāya
Nd1.Mahāniddesa
NdA.Commentary on Niddesa
PsA.Commentary on Paṭisambhidāmagga
Pv.Petavatthu
S.Saṁyuttanikāya
Sn.Suttanipāta
SnA.Commentary on Suttanipāta
Th.Theragāthā
UdA.Commentary on Udāna
Vbh.Vibhaṅga
Vin.Vinayapiṭaka
VinṬ.Subcommentary on Vinayapiṭaka
Vism.Visuddhimagga
VismṬ.Subcommentary on Visuddhimagga
| Point of distinction | Samatha | Vipassanā |
| 1. Nature | Dependent on concentration | Dependent on wisdom or insight |
| 2. Characteristic | Non-restlessness; no anxiety | Knowing things as they are |
| 3. Function | Overcoming the five hindrances to the effective working of the mind | Destroying ignorance or delusion (such as that manifested through the three perversions, which conceal the three characteristics of existence) |
| 4. Appearance | Stability of mind; state of being undisturbed | Not deluded by phenomena |
| 5. Proximate Cause | Happiness | Concentration |
| 6. Object | A mental image | The present phenomena or activities |
| 7. Meditating Factors | Initial application, Sustained application, joy, happiness, one-pointedness of mind and other associated mental factors | Ardor, clear comprehension and mindfulness |
| 8. Method | – To fix the mind on one single object (chosen from among the 40 meditation subjects) | – To meditate on (be mindful of and clearly comprehending) any mental or physical activity or phenomenon that is performed or presents itself at the present moment. (These activities and phenomena are, for practical purposes, classified into the four foundations of mindfulness: body, feelings, states of consciousness and ideas) |
| – A secluded place and a particular physical posture are often needed | – Any place and any posture are serviceable | |
| – Practice preferably confined to two sense-doors (the eye and the mind) | – No particular sense-door can be prescribed | |
| 9. Stages of Attainments | Meditative absorptions | Various insights and stages of purifications. |
| 10. Profits | – Calm and happiness of mind – Fivefold supernormal knowledge – Rebirth in Form and Formless Realms – Temporary freedom; foundation for vipassanā |
– Destruction of mental defilements – End of suffering and final freedom – The attainment of nibbana |
N.B.: The five hindrances are sensual excitement (kāmachanda), ill will (byāpāda), sloth and torpor (thīna-middha), flurry and worry (uddhacca-kukkucca), and doubt (vicikicchā).
The three perversions are those of perception (saññā-vipallāsa), of thought (citta-vipallāsa), and of views (diṭṭhi-vipallāsa).
Main Source: The Visuddhimagga III and XIV, and traditions.
I. Merit-making or merit-accumulation: The concept of merit based on the law of karma, connected with better rebirth and worldly enjoyment hereafter as consequences, seems to be the best known of the Buddhist motivations for doing good. Though, practically, it is a dominating idea, a general reference of religious people, and a strong influence on the behavior of most Buddhists, its importance and prevalence are often overemphasized or sometimes even exaggerated. These are some points of argument:
1. Many Buddhists do not relate their merit-making to any concrete results but the present benefits to the recipients and they are merely happy in doing so. (The concrete results, if any in their mind, are something like a confidence of what will come out naturally by the law of causality, without any necessity for expectation.)
2. Phenomenologically, it seems that it is the old people who relate their merit-making to better rebirth. Many others engage themselves in merit-making in order to dedicate merit to others. Today, more serious meritorious activities and ceremonies are usually for others rather than oneself, though “others” here usually means one’s beloved or respected.
3. Though merit-making in the form of giving (especially to monks) is most prevailing, it should be remembered that there are many other forms or ways of making merit. (Scriptural traditions cite ten bases of meritorious action, namely, giving, moral behavior, mental development, humility, rendering services, giving out merit, rejoicing in others’ merit, listening to right teaching, showing truth and forming correct views. DA.III.999)
II. The Feeling of Common Good and Doing the Way of the Good: Following are some observations:
1. It is not that when the monks are less concerned with merit-motivations, all of their activities should be nibbana-motivated. It is true that every right behavior of the monks becomes automatically favorable to the practice toward nibbana, but that should be taken as helpful conditions rather than nibbana-motivated. In observing monastic discipline binding on community life (as distinguished from individual life) and the teachings concerning the brotherhood and the religion, it is social responsibility and the feeling of common good that motivate, (e.g., D. II.77; D.III.245; A.V.70).
2. Laymen are also expected to share with the monks the above motivations for practicing various virtues, especially those expected of them as duties, such as the four bases of sympathy (A.II.32) and the ten householders (S.IV.331). Even the laymen’s material support to the monks is fundamentally based on the responsibility for mutual good (It.ll).
3. Both monks and laymen are expected to practice various virtues as they are the way of the good (sappurisa – such as A.III.46; A.IV.113).
III. Loving-kindness: In this are included compassion and the other two sublime states of mind (sympathetic joy and equanimity). This kind of motivation is characterized by the desire for the good of others, readiness to help or to act, and non-expectation of selfish results in any form. At least three forms of motivation can be distinguished in Buddhist behavior, namely,
1. The spirit of being first to give help or to do good to others, without expecting anything in return (pubbakāritā).
2. The spirit of doing good for the benefits of those who come after (the posterity or succeeding generations) (pacchimā-janatānukampā).
3. The spirit of doing good for, or devote oneself to, the good of the many (bahujana-hitānukampā).
IV. Nibbanic Motivation: This term should be reserved only for the practices leading directly to, or on the way to, nibbana (such as the foundations of mindfulness and the enlightenment factors) when they are rightly practiced, and for the destruction of mental defilements that is coupled with the right practice of a virtue. Strictly speaking, nibbanic motivation is kammatic. Right practice toward nibbana is possible only when it is coupled with knowledge, not any motivation toward nibbana. Out of the desire to attain nibbana, one may acquire some knowledge of what nibbana is. If one acts from that knowledge, the action becomes nibbanic. But to act out of the desire for nibbana is really kammatic.
It should be noted that an act out of loving-kindness (Class 3) can be included in merit-making activities of Class 1, if it is not qualified by freedom of the mind. To make this clear, some further remarks should be made.
According to the text, there can be distinguished two types of merit or meritorious action (puñña):
1. One is qualified as opadhika (merit or meritorious action that is connected with, or conducive to, a better rebirth or further enjoyment). Any act of giving, keeping moral rules or showing loving-kindness that is opadhika is included in Class 1.
2. The other is qualified as anupadhika (merit or meritorious action that is not connected with, or conducive to, any worldly ideas). This is meant by activities in Class 3. Strictly speaking, loving kindness here must be qualified by the freedom of the mind (mettā-cetovimutti). This is far superior to the merit-making activities in Class 1. (See It.20; and ItA.117–123 in the Thai edition).
| Meaning | Illustration |
|---|---|
| 1. Ignorance (avijjā): Lack of knowledge or understanding; non-application of wisdom or intelligence in a particular case at a particular moment. | 1. (On seeing B, his friend, A smiles to him and greets him but with no response except a frowning face.) A does not know the reasons and does not apply his thought to probe the causes and circumstances for B’s behavior. |
| 2. Formations (saṅkhāra): Being subject to the habitual selforiented way of thinking, one develops good or evil thoughts and emotions out of one’s accumulated tendencies, dispositions, attitudes, aptitudes, beliefs, interests and prejudices. | 2. Taking B’s behavior as directed toward him, A develops hostile images of B, fanciful ideas and emotions based on his accumulated mental qualities and habitual patterns of thought. He may feel hurt, angry, depressed or hostile against B. |
| 3. Consciousness (viññāṇa): To perceive something is to be conscious of some of its aspects so as to get some specific meanings that are relevant, whether positively or negatively, to the current train of thought and emotions. | 3. A sees all expressions and behavior of B as meant against him, affirming his current thought and emotions. The more he fancies, the more things appear so to him. |
| 4. Psycho-physical qualities (nāmarūpa): The states of mind and body that accord with the state of consciousness. | 4. A’s mental and physical conditions such as countenance and gestures accord with, follow, or function in such a way that is favorable to, the current state of consciousness. |
| 5. Six sense-bases (saḷāyatana): The senses involved in the situation become alert and/or function in accord with other mental and physical conditions to supply the process with new relevant data. | 5. The eyes, the ears and other senses of A, the services of which are needed in that situation, become active in function. (Other senses become insensitive or as if temporarily inoperative.) |
| 6. Contact or impression (phassa): Mental contact with (=the experiencing of) concepts, ideas or images derived from or formed around the obtained data such as a beautiful hand, an ugly face, a harsh manner, a vulgar word, and a sweet voice. | 6. A experienced out of the newly obtained and conceived data B’s unfriendly or unpleasant manners and appearances such as a rough manner, an unfriendly look, and a disparaging gesture. |
| 7. Feeling (vedanā): The feeling of pleasure, displeasure or indifference that arises on experiencing agreeable or disagreeable objects. | 7. A feels unhappy, displeased or painful because of the disagreeable and unpleasant experiences. |
8. Craving (taṇhā): Being for one kind of feeling and against another, craving ensues manifesting itself under three aspects, viz.,
|
8. Craving for sensual pleasures not being satisfied, craving for existence being frustrated, the craving for non-existence is developed, repelling against displeasure. A desires for the disappearance or the destruction of B or to rid himself of the unpleasant figure of the latter such as by having him defeated. |
| 9. Clinging or attachment (upādāna): Becoming preoccupied with the object of craving, fixing it as the target to which to direct one’s activities, either positively, to associate oneself with it, or negatively, to separate oneself from it, one becomes attached or clings to the objects of pleasure, the views and theories, the means to get and avoid, and the concepts of the self, that are to be in favor of oneself. (These attachments will influence, set the direction of, impose limitations on, or even distort one’s further interpretations, decisions and activities in general). | 9. A assumes the whole of B’s behavior as his direct concern, and clings and resorts to the objects of pleasure, to the views and theories, to the means and methods and to the ideas of his self that will be in favor of himself in his concern with, or in his response to, B’s behavior. |
| 10. Becoming (bhava): A specific state of being or existence that comes to be as the totality of one’s behavioral process going on under the influence or direction of one’s attachments. | 10. A’s behavior that is to follow takes a specific pattern as to meet, or be under the influence of, his attachments, causing him to be in a specific state of existence, probably, that of being an adversary or one striving to overcome. |
| 11. Birth (jāti): The springing up or appearance of the individual into that state of existence; the assumed self enters into conscious possession of that state of existence. There comes to be the ‘I’ who is in, or is possessed of, that state of existence. | 11. A, by way of consciousness, assumes, or takes the conscious possession of, the state of being the adversary of or one striving to overcome B. There is A, who is the adversary or is striving to overcome B. |
| 12. Decay and death (jarāmaraṇa): The springing of the individuality of ‘I’ renders it subject to the experience of decay (receding from perfection) and final perishing (being deprived of the perfection), and thus to the pressure of threatening separation, unpleasant association, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, despair, frustrated desires and all kinds of unwelcome states of insecurity.
These symptomatic states become accumulated as a suffering complex which influences one’s personality and further behavior. They themselves condition ignorance which runs on the vicious cycle. All human problems. Both individual and social, can be traced to, or have much to do with, this suffering complex. Not finding a right outlet or a way to root it out, one accumulates it to the detriment of oneself or bursts it out into problematic behavior affecting both oneself and others. For example, a man who is jealous of his power, for fear of losing the power, may become suspicious of all others and can do anything no matter how disastrous only to keep his power. |
12. Once in the assumed state of the adversary or one striving to overcome, A becomes subject to the threatening and oppression of lacking the fulfillment of that state, receding from it, losing it, not being able to fulfill or to maintain it, struggling to keep it with himself and parting from it. In this process, he develops fear, anxiety, depression, frustration, pain, grief, despair or regret as the case may be, alone or in alternation with satisfaction, gladdening, joy, delight and cheerfulness. Here, the point is that, in case of such a birth-of-self process, the disagreeable feelings can develop alone in the absence of the agreeable ones, while the arising of the latter entails the developing of the former, and even the heightening of the degree of their strength, intensity and severity, thus redounding or lending themselves to the ongoing process in either case. |
In order to cure personal suffering and prevent problematic behavior, one must cut apart the vicious cycle, not letting the suffering complex develop or accumulate. This can be achieved by dealing with the cycle at various links, especially at Nos.6 and 7. What are needed to destroy the vicious cycle are only mindfulness (“sati” for stopping the turbid or poisoned process) and understanding or insight (for rooting out the suffering complex and starting a purified process).
It should be noted that the process goes on rapidly and the whole cycle can be passed in the interval of a moment. Besides, strictly speaking, it is not a cycle as such; all conditions are interlinked.
[The introductory part of a presentation given at the University Museum of the University of Pennsylvania from April 5 to May 4, 1972]
I am very pleased to meet you and to talk with you in this program of the confrontation of cultures which has been arranged by the University Museum of the University of Pennsylvania. I wish to thank the University Museum for its generous invitation and the warm welcome which the museum officials have tendered to me. It is also my great pleasure to have this opportunity to introduce to you Thailand, my country, and Buddhism, which is her religion.
A. Thailand is a Southeast Asian country to the west of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. It has an area of 200,000 square kilometers and a population of 34 million. Ninety-four percent of the people are Buddhists. Buddhism in Thailand belongs to the Theravada or Southern School. Travelers to Thailand are impressed by the large number of Buddhist monasteries distributed all over the country—in cities, towns and villages. The number of monasteries now amounts to about 24,000 and the number of monks and novices to about 280,000. Many travelers call Thailand “the Land of the Yellow Robes.”
To gain a true understanding of the culture and character of the Thai people, it is necessary to learn something of Buddhism. A simple way to know the influence of Buddhism on Thai culture is to know the roles that monks and monasteries play in Thai society.
B. The Buddhist brotherhood is composed of four assemblies: monks, nuns, laymen and laywomen. The four can be classified into two sections: the monastic section and the lay section.
All Buddhists, whether monks or laymen, are expected to realize that they should live a balanced life, experiencing both material comforts and spiritual happiness. The monastic section is more devoted to spiritual development while the lay section still has much to do with material quest. The monks are bound by a large number of disciplinary rules. They have to observe strict discipline to make life conditions favorable to spiritual development. On the other hand, the laymen are treading the path at different levels. They may merely keep basic standards of morality. If they have confidence in the teaching and are prepared for their training, they are Buddhists. There is no religious confinement to separate or isolate them from other people or groups in society.
As the monks are more devoted to spiritual development, their duties and responsibilities are centered on the spiritual. To devote their time and energy fully to spiritual development, they have to cut off as many personal cares and worries as possible. Thus they shave their heads, wear the yellow robes and possess only a few requisites. However, they have to be careful about their personal behavior, not to affect the moral standards of the people. Not only that, they even have to encourage the moral standards of society because they are responsible for the spiritual security of society. On the part of the laity, since they have to spend much of their time on material quest while being careful not to neglect the spiritual side, they have to depend on the monks for spiritual guidance. Therefore there is a basic principle for maintaining and encouraging the relationship between the monks and the laymen; the monks depend on the laity for material necessities—food, clothing, lodging and medicine—while the laity depend on the monks for spiritual guidance. Based on this basic principle Buddhist monks and monasteries in Thailand have played important roles in the spiritual and cultural life of Thai society throughout its history of over 700 years.
C. To get a clearer picture of this, let us look at the life of village people because the village is the fundamental rural Thai community. Usually a village has a monastery of its own. When starting a new village, the villagers usually build a new monastery for their village and invite some monks from somewhere else to live there. It is neither the Buddhist Order nor the government that erects the village monastery. It is the people themselves who erect it and feel that they belong to the monastery and that the monastery belongs to them. The village monastery becomes the center of social life and activities of the village. Their roles may be summed up as follows:
When a boy is seven years old, he may be sent to a monastery to live under the monks and acquire such basic knowledge as reading and arithmetic. After some years he may be selected and ordained as a novice. At the age of 20, he will be ordained as a monk and further his studies. But not all boys become novices and continue to live in the monastery. Some boys after gaining their basic knowledge may return home and help their parents to make a living. They will come to the monastery again when they turn twenty and ordain for at least three months during the rainy season. It is a tradition for a Thai male to ordain for at least three months in his life and every monk is free to leave the Order and resume a layman’s life at any time. A man who has been ordained is held in high regard as an educated member of society. Eight out of the nine kings of the Bangkok period were ordained and lived the life of a monk just like ordinary citizens.
Most Thai art has been created and preserved in monasteries. Monasteries are also places where drama shows find expression. Art plays are an important part of culture and help to distinguish the Thais from other peoples. In this light, monasteries reflect the identity and uniqueness of the Thai nation.
Regularly on Buddhist holy days, at intervals of seven or eight days, people go to present food to the monks at the monastery. Usually at least one from every family in the community goes there. Besides meeting with the monks they also meet there to talk and discuss different matters which concern their community life. Their relationship is strengthened; they get to know one another better and problems concerning their communities can be solved there. As for the children, they use the grounds of the monastery as their playground. Older people may learn more about the teachings, stay overnight in the monastery and experience calmness and serenity of mind.
Besides obtaining merit, the villagers will listen to the monks preaching in the monastery hall. Their sons will be trained in moral lessons and study other subjects under the monks. The mothers will also take moral lessons there and in turn impart them to their children at home.
When facing life problems, conflicts in the family or disputes with neighbors, people will go to the monasteries for guidance and counseling; advice of the monks will be heeded with high regard.
Many times during a year, people have festivals, which are usually held in the monastery. There are movies, shows and many kinds of amusement there.
Needy people, elderly people without anybody to take care of them, and people who do not want to live in their own family may go to the monastery for food and shelter.
People come to the monastery when there is a funeral. They also invite the monks to their homes on various occasions such as housewarmings, wedding ceremonies, annual merit-makings and so on. They want their lives to be blessed and happy and to express their gratitude.
Monasteries play many other roles. Some monks help the people with medical care. Small halls provide accommodation for those on a journey.
As community centers for social life, monasteries serve to unify people into social units, and to communicate and cooperate with other communities.
Monks are not only spiritual leaders but also social leaders. People respect and put trust in the monks. Their respect and obedience are grounded on the monks’ virtues rather than power of control. This kind of reverence is more effective and long-lasting. To initiate a project, to join hands in social activities or to cooperate with outsiders such as government officials, the villagers will look to the monks for advice and help in their decision-making. This attitude of the people is being utilized in projects of community development.
“How has it come to be like this?” one might wonder. It is not so easy to give a definite answer here. One simple explanation is that Buddhism is an integral part of Thai culture. The Thai nation has been connected with Buddhism throughout its history. The Thai nation originated over 1000 years ago. Buddhism also came and played a part in Thai history over 1000 years ago. The Thai nation settled down firmly in present-day Thailand over 700 years ago and adopted the present form of Buddhism almost at the same time. The history of the Thai nation is, therefore, also the history of Buddhism.
However, Thailand of today is not the same as Thailand a century ago. The conditions of Thai society now are not the same as they were long ago. Although the original pattern of life and social systems in the countryside are largely retained, they have changed a lot in cities and towns. In some metropolitan areas, monasteries cannot be called centers of social life any more; in others, they can hardly be called so. One of the most important factors that have caused this is the rapid influx of Western civilization.
Western civilization reached Thailand about 70 years ago. People were impressed by its arts and sciences, and modern comforts and conveniences brought about by technology. They were excited and hoped for much progress; they adopted a new pattern of life, modern education and other modern systems. Separation occurred by degrees between the lay section and the monastic section of Thai society. But modern civilization has both good and bad sides. After some time its bad sides have caused many problems and conflict with the original values; its value has become dubious. Now people are increasingly beginning to realize the bad sides of modern civilization and the various problems caused thereby. As a result, they have turned to look inside, to investigate their own pattern in search of the real values. They do not think or speak so highly of Western civilization as they did one or two decades ago.
In looking inside, they take into consideration not only popular Buddhism as believed and practiced by the populace, but also its fundamental principles. Popular Buddhism is something we have discussed in the first part of this presentation. Now let us take a look at the fundamental teaching through some brief remarks on Buddhist concepts.
1. All existence keeps on going in its own way—according to causes and conditions—which came to be called the law of cause and effect. This law is natural. It exists independently of any founder of religion. It goes on without beginning and without end. There is no First Cause. There is no God the Creator who created and has control over it.
2. All existence is conditioned and relative. Things are composed of constituent parts and keep on going according to causes and conditions. Their existence is relative.
3. Subject to the law of cause and effect, all conditioned things are impermanent and unenduring (in other words, suffering or conflicting), they are always in the process of changing. This comprises both material and mental existence. In this process there is no part that is stable, which can persist and remain all the same; there is nothing that can be called “self” or “soul” in the absolute sense. Things are soulless and unsubstantial.
1. The Buddha is only the shower of the way. He discovered the truth and made it known to the people. He can only point out the way. He guides and encourages people along the way. The path to the goal has to be trodden by a man himself. It is the path of self-purification requiring self-exertion.
2. All men are born equal in being human. They are to be judged by their character and action; in other words, by what they think and do, not by their birth. Individually, everyone can improve his quality and needs self-exertion. Socially, one can guide and encourage others, and association with good people is needed. People should be friends and help one another.
3. In the path of self-purification, wisdom is the key virtue and thus is to be developed. To develop wisdom, one must learn to think, to investigate and to understand things for oneself. Buddhist principles are things to see, not just to believe. Therefore, the words in the scriptures are to be studied and investigated thoroughly, not to be believed blindly. “Don’t go by mere tradition. Don’t go by mere reasoning. Don’t go merely because it is the master who says this. Don’t go merely because it is said in the scriptures, etc.”
4. The practical teaching of Buddhism is summed up in the Middle Way or the Noble Eightfold Path, which comprises the threefold training of morality, concentration and wisdom. These three components are interdependent. They must all be practiced in order to obtain the goal. In a more practical way, they can be expressed as the three instructions, viz: (a) not to do evil, (b) to cultivate good and (c) to purify the mind.
The third instruction shows that Buddhism teaches more than an ethical code. It teaches not only to love and not to hate, but also how to achieve this, that is to say, how to love and how not to hate, so that our virtue and good behavior become natural and spontaneous instead of forced and premeditated.
Nirvana is the final goal of Buddhism. This goal can be experienced here and now in this very life. However, one need not wait until one attains nirvana in order to experience the fruit of Buddhist life and live in the present only with a hope for the future. In each moment of life, at every step along the right path, once one practices, by seeing, by the increase of knowledge of the nature of things, by peace of mind and freedom from anxiety and by gradually removing the cause of suffering, one experiences the fruit of Buddhism and treading the path of nirvana.
This is Buddhism in brief—what Buddhists believe and practice—parts of which the Thai people have lived up to, and which has conditioned the Thai culture as it is today.
Phra Srivisuddhimoli
April 19, 1972
Not to do any evil; to cultivate good; to purify one’s mind—this is the teaching of the Buddhas. (183)
It is hard to be born as a human being. Hard is the life of mortals. It is hard to hear the true teaching. The arising of the Buddha is very hard to see. (182)
Having myself discovered the way to the removal of the arrow of suffering, I have revealed it to you. You yourself must make the effort. The Perfect Ones only point out the way. (275–6)
As many kinds of garlands can be made of a heap of flowers, so many good deeds should be done once one is born. (53)
Better than a hundred years of inactivity and idleness is one day of energetic life. (112)
Better than a hundred years of folly and thoughtlessness is a single day of wise and thoughtful life. (111)
It is easy to do what is bad and harmful to oneself. What is helpful and good is hard to do. (163)
Riches ruin the foolish but not those who seek the goal. (355)
The man who overcomes his committed evil with good actions brightens up the world like the moon emerging from behind the cloud. (173)
Two things, monks, I have realized: discontent with good achievements and perseverance in exertion. (A.l.49)
Like a well-trained horse when touched by the whip, let a man be active and lively. By confidence, by virtue, by effort, by concentration and by discernment of truth, you, being perfect in knowledge and conduct, will get rid of this great sorrow. (144)
Let no man think lightly of good: “It cannot be for me.” Drop by drop is the pitcher filled and little by little the wise man is filled with merit. (122)
If a man commits an evil, let him not do it again nor take pleasure in it, for the accumulation of evil is painful. (117)
Oneself indeed is one’s savior. Who else could be the savior? With oneself well trained one obtains a savior who is hard to gain. (160)
Oneself is the refuge of oneself. Who else could be the refuge? Oneself is the destiny of oneself. Therefore, take care of yourself even as a merchant takes care of his noble horse. (380)
Though one may conquer a thousand times a thousand men in battle, one who conquers oneself is the greatest victor. (103)
Mules and horses and elephants are excellent when trained, but more excellent is the man who has trained himself. (322)
Irrigators guide the water; fletchers strengthen the arrow; carpenters bend the wood; wise people train themselves. (80, 145)
As a fletcher straightens his arrows, so the wise man straightens his unsteady mind, which is so hard to control. (33)
It is good to train the mind. A mind under control brings happiness. (35)
Whatever an enemy may do to an enemy or a hater to a hated, a wrongly directed mind can do one far greater harm. (42)
Neither father nor mother nor any other relative can do a man so much good as a well-directed mind. (43)
The faults of others are easily seen, but one’s own is hard to see. A man winnows others’ faults like chaff, but one’s own faults he covers as a fowler hides himself. (252)
Let a wise man first go the right way himself, and then teach others. So he will not be defiled. (158)
As he teaches others so should he himself act. Being himself well trained he may train others. It is indeed one’s own self that is difficult to train. (159)
Happily do we live, we who have no worry. Feeders of joy shall we be even as the shining gods. (200)
Not nakedness, nor matted hair, nor dirt, not fasting, nor sleeping on the ground, nor rubbing the body with dust or ashes, nor sitting like an ascetic can purify a man who has not overcome his doubts. (141)
The well-disciplined man is tolerant like the earth, firm like the great pillars, clear like a lake without mud. For him there is no (spiritual) wandering on. (95)
A man is not an elder merely because his hair is gray. He may be old in years but known as “old in vain.” (260)
He who leads others considerately, lawfully and impartially is a guardian of the law; he is wise and is called righteous. (257)
There never was and never will be, nor is there now a man who is wholly blamed or wholly praised. (228)
As a solid rock remaining unmoved by the wind, so the wise remain unmoved by praise or blame. (81)
If a man finds a prudent friend who walks with him, who leads a good life and is wise, let him walk with such a friend joyfully and mindfully, overcoming all troubles. (328)
Though a fool associates with a wise man all his life, he will not understand the truth even as a spoon does not know the taste of soup. (64)
But when an intelligent man knows a wise man, even for a little while, he will soon understand the truth as the tongue knows the taste of soup. (65)
The fool who knows his folly is wise so far, but a fool who thinks himself wise is called a fool indeed. (63)
All tremble at weapons; life is dear to all. Comparing others with oneself, one should not kill nor cause to kill. (180)
Hatred does not cease by hatred; hatred ceases by love—this is an eternal law. (5)
Conquer anger by love. Conquer evil by good. Conquer the miser by generosity. Conquer the liar by truth. (223)
Let him advise, let him instruct, let him prevent wrongdoing. Good men will love him and only the bad will hate him. (77)
Health is the highest gain. Contentment is the greatest wealth. The trusty are the best kinsmen. Nibbana is the highest bliss. (204)
Whatever offering or sacrifice a man may make for a whole year in order to gain merit, the whole of it is not worth a small part of reverence for the upright. (108)
Before long, alas! this body will lie on the ground, cast aside and devoid of consciousness, like a useless log of wood. (41)
While the man is gathering the flowers of pleasures, death carries him off as a flood sweeps away a sleeping village. (47)
While a man is gathering the flowers of pleasure, he is overtaken by death before he is satisfied. (48)
“I have sons, I have wealth.” Thinking thus the fool is troubled. Verily, he himself is not his own. How can sons or wealth be his? (62)
Come, look at the world, glittering like a royal chariot with which the foolish are taken up, but for the wise there is no attachment. (171)
A fool does not know when he does evil. The wicked man burns by his own deeds as if burnt by fire. (136)
An evil deed does not turn suddenly like milk. Smoldering, it follows the fool like fire covered by ashes. (71)
It is an ill deed which brings remorse and the fruit of which is reaped in sorrow. (67)
There is no fire like lust. There is no grip like hate. There is no net like delusion. There is no river like craving. (251)
Misconduct is the taint of a woman. Stinginess is the taint of a benefactor. Taints indeed are all evil things both in this world and in the next. But there is a taint worse than all these. Ignorance is the greatest taint. (242–3)
It is a good deed which needs no regrets and the fruit of which is reaped in joy. (68)
The craving of the man who lives a careless life grows like a creeper. He jumps hither and thither like a monkey in the forest looking for fruit. (334)
Sandalwood or tagara wood, a lotus flower or a jasmine—sweeter than the scent of all these is the perfume of virtue. (55)
As a beautiful flower that is full of color but without scent, even so fruitless is the well-spoken word of the man who does not practice it. (51)
As a beautiful flower that is full of color and scent-laden, even so fruitful is the well-spoken word of the man who practices it. (52)
Better than a thousand meaningless words is one word of sense which brings the hearer peace. (100)
There is no happiness higher than peace. (202)
You should thus train yourself: “Though I am ill in body, my mind shall not be ill.” (S. III. 1)
There is no concentration for him who has no wisdom; nor is there wisdom for him who has no concentration. He in whom are both concentration and wisdom is indeed in the presence of nibbana. (372)
Craving grows greater in the man who is disturbed by evil thoughts, who is strongly lustful and looks only for pleasures. He tightens his own fetters. (349)
One is not a monk merely by a shaven head. How can a man be a monk if he is undisciplined, deceitful, filled with greed and desire? But he who wholly quiets the evil, whether small or great, is called a monk because he has quieted all evil. (264–5)
Not merely with morality and ascetic practices, nor with much learning, nor with the higher attainments, nor with solitary dwelling, nor with the thought ‘I enjoy the bliss of renunciation, which is unknown to the worldlings’ should a Bhikkhu rest content so long as he has not reached the extinction of impurities. (271–2)
Driven on by craving men circle around like an ensnared hare. Bound fast by fetters and bonds, for long they come to sorrow again and again. (342)
From craving springs grief; from craving springs fear. For him who is free from craving there is no grief. How then can there be fear? (216)
A man is not a sage merely because of silence, he may be dull and ignorant as well. But the wise man who, as if holding a pair of scales, takes what is good and leaves out what is evil, is indeed a sage, is a sage for that very reason. He is a sage because he knows both sides in the world. (268–9)
As the bee collects honey without destroying the beauty and scent of the flowers, so should the sage go about the town. (49)
For those who are ever watchful, who train themselves day and night, who are intent on nibbana, their defilements come to an end. (226)
Calm is his mind, calm are his words and deeds. Thus calm is he who has become perfectly peaceful and wholly freed through true knowledge. (96)
Driving away idleness by earnestness, the wise man climbs the high palace of wisdom and, being free from sorrow, looks upon the ignorant and sorrowing mankind as one on a mountain sees those on the plain. (28)
Phra Srivisuddhimoli
April 21,1972
[Based on the content of my slide lecture, the accompanying notes were prepared by an officer of the University Museum and handed out together with the set of the slides shown to the students after the lecture. Copies of the slides and notes were also distributed to other institutions of education as a community service.]
Slide 1 — Buddhism first appeared in India as an opposition to some of the beliefs of Brahmanism and its caste system. Although Buddhists believe that there were earlier Buddhas, the Buddha whose teachings form the basis of the existing Buddhism died in India in 483 B.C. (or 543 B.C. according to Theravada Buddhist tradition). Since his clan name was Gautama, he is sometimes called Gautama the Buddha.
As a young prince, he became disturbed at the unhappiness and unfairness he saw in life. At 29 years of age, he began to search for an answer. After six years he at last found enlightenment, and became the Buddha or the Enlightened One. This slide shows a bronze statue of the Buddha seated in a special pose of concentration, having conquered the Mara the Evil One. It was made about 600 years ago.
The teachings of the Buddha offer instructions for those who will follow the Middle Way to Enlightenment. The Middle Way is one of the basic concepts of Buddhism. The extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification, or asceticism, are to be avoided.
Slide 2 — The Buddha taught for 45 years and died at the age of 80. He offered the new principle that all people were equal and could develop themselves socially and spiritually. This is the belief in karma or action, the law of cause and effect. The Dharma, or the Truth, is one of the three principles of Buddhism; the others are the Buddha and the Sangha, or the monastic order. Karma itself is one of the main concepts of the Dharma. The Buddha of course had disciples who continued his teachings. These teachings were merely guidelines, not a dogma to be believed in implicitly. Nor was the Buddha a god to be worshipped.
Under the famous King Asoka, who died about 232 B.C., one group of Buddhist missionaries was sent by him from India to Thailand. Today 95% of the people in Thailand are Buddhists and there are many Buddhist monasteries throughout the country. In this illustration is shown the gate, with huge guardian giants, of the Temple of Dawn in Bangkok. In the left foreground stands a monk in his saffron-colored robe.
Slide 3 — Although monasteries in the provinces are often quite small, those located in big cities, like this one in Bangkok, are quite large. Here are many structures for monk use and sacred buildings containing statues and paintings of the Buddha for public use. Since Buddhism teaches the concept of social responsibility, a monastery is not a place where monks shut themselves off from ordinary life and its problems. In towns and villages the monasteries serve as important social centers for such functions as funerals and meetings between the monks and the people. In a special hall the people gain religious merit such as making offerings to the monks.
This scene shows some of the buildings in Wat Pho in Bangkok. The great building in the center distance is a large pagoda covered with ceramic tiles and housing a great Buddha statue.
Slide 4 — The great stupa seen here represents an architectural form peculiar to Thailand, although stupas occasionally show architectural influences from Ceylon and India. There are many stupas throughout Thailand. They house such things as images of the Buddha, portions of Buddhist scriptures and the relics of the Buddha or his disciples.
This particular stupa is called Phra Pathom Chedi and is covered with glazed tiles. It was originally built when Buddhism first came to Thailand but has been renovated on several occasions since then. It stands in a neighboring province of Bangkok.
Slide 5 — Not long after the death of King Asoka, Indian Buddhism split into two schools: the Theravada or Southern School, and the Mahayana or Northern School. Theravada Buddhism is found today in such countries as Ceylon, Thailand and Cambodia. The monks of Thailand wear a robe dyed to a warm saffron color. Their heads are shaved at monthly intervals. Monks form the Sangha, the third of the Three Jewels. They follow the Buddha in cultivating the three main virtues: wisdom, purity and compassion. Compassion may also be interpreted as social responsibility.
This picture shows the Venerable Phra Srivisuddhimoli lecturing at the University Museum in Philadelphia. Aside from those who commit themselves to a life of monkhood, in Thailand it is usual for a man to enter a monastery and become a monk early in his adult life even if only for a few weeks.
Slide 6 — People in the Thai village feel very close to monks in the local monastery. For them it is an honor and a means of gaining merit to do such a thing as feeding the monks or giving them clothing and other necessities of life. Usually each morning the monks leave the monastery for the morning almsround. Occasionally, however, the laypeople come into the monastery to offer their gifts of food. For other purposes, of course, they enter the monastery on a great many occasions.
In the gold lacquer painting shown here can be seen a Buddhist monastery. Toward the top of the scene, monks are receiving food from the people. At the lower right, a monk is sweeping the floor. This decoration is on the front of a cabinet holding a copy of the Buddha’s teachings. In a monastery the monks study these teachings written in Pali, the scriptural language of Theravada Buddhism. Through concentrated study of these teachings, a person can understand more clearly the Buddhist principle that the final goal of Buddhism—nirvana or enlightenment—is attainable in this world.
Slide 7 — Meditation in Buddhist practice is a means of preparing the mind for greater awareness and sharpening its perception of the true nature of life. It is unlike mystic meditation in which a person seeks to remove his awareness of life and its problems. Buddhist meditation offers a true internal freedom where the mind is free, not tied to material things. This leads to true happiness and a healthy mind.
The gold lacquer cabinet front shown here represents a peaceful forest scene with a pond, deer and roosters. At the right is a special little hut where a holy man could stay and meditate. Below it sits the holy man himself receiving food from monkeys.
Two types of Buddhist meditation are practiced. Tranquility meditation, the initial type, makes the mind clear and calm. It is for the purpose of concentrating so that one can move on to insight meditation. Insight meditation, the more advanced type, offers the means of gaining a true knowledge of the nature of existence. It is the highest form of Buddhist meditation, leading to the ultimate happiness and freedom.
Slide 8 — In early times the monks were the only teachers and the schools, therefore, were in the monasteries. Now the classes are taught mostly by lay teachers, but in the provinces public schools are still located in the monasteries. The government is encouraging the revival of the monk’s role in education.
This illustration shows a variety of buildings in a monastery in Bangkok as seen from the Golden Pagoda which contains a bone relic of the Buddha.
Slide 9 — Here, in Nakhon Pathom, can be seen a small Buddhist monastery typical of the many scattered throughout the countryside of Thailand. Rice fields surround it and among them stand small houses of local inhabitants. In such a setting it is clear that the monastery does serve as a focal point for the community.
Slide 10 — This old wall painting from the Grand Palace compound in Bangkok shows the Buddha seated in a pavilion.
Among the sayings which he gave his followers are these:
As many kinds of garlands can be made from a heap of flowers, so many good deeds should be done once one is born. (53)
Better than a hundred years of inactivity and idleness is one day of energetic life. (112)
Better than a hundred years of folly and thoughtlessness is a single day of wise and thoughtful life. (111)
It is easy to do what is bad and harmful to oneself. What is helpful and good is hard to do. (163)
Oneself is the refuge of oneself. Who else can be the refuge? Oneself is the destiny of oneself. Therefore take care of yourself even as a merchant takes care of his noble horse. (380)
Though one may conquer a thousand times a thousand men in battle, he who conquers himself is the greatest victor. (103)
Neither father nor mother nor any other relative can do a man so much good as a well-directed mind. (43)
Slide 11 — From one of the palace buildings in Bangkok also comes this wall painting showing the Buddha standing on a lotus flower and talking to angels or holy figures of a higher order.
Here are further sayings of the Buddha:
Having myself discovered the way to the removal of the arrow of suffering, I have revealed it to you. You yourself must make the effort. The Perfect Ones only point out the way. (275–276)
Two things, monks, I have realized: discontent with good achievements and perseverance in exertion. (A.1.49)
As he teaches others, so should he himself act. Being himself well trained, he may train others. It is indeed one’s own self that is difficult to train. (159)
Let him advise, let him instruct, let him prevent wrongdoing. Good men will love him and only the bad will hate him. (77)
One is not a monk merely by a shaven head. How can a man be a monk if he is undisciplined, deceitful, filled with greed and desire? But he who wholly quiets the evil, whether small or great, is called a monk because he has quieted all evil. (264–265)
Calm is his mind, calm are his words and deeds. Thus calm is he who has become perfectly peaceful and wholly freed through true knowledge. (96)
Slide 12 — This lacquer decoration on a clothing chest, showing Chinese influence, represents another tranquil forest scene appropriate for meditation. Here a holy man sits among rocks and trees with peacocks and deer not far away.
The Buddha advised his followers:
Not to do any evil; to cultivate good; to purify one’s mind—this is the teaching of the Buddhas. (183)
Let no man think lightly of good: “It cannot be for me.” Drop by drop is the pitcher filled and little by little the wise man is filled with merit. (122)
If a man commits an evil, let him not do it again nor take pleasure in it, for the accumulation of evil is painful. (117) It is good to train the mind. A mind under control brings happiness. (35)
The faults of others are easily seen, but one’s own is hard to see. A man winnows others’ faults like chaff, but one’s own faults he covers as a fowler hides himself. (252)
Conquer anger by love. Conquer evil by good. Conquer the miser by generosity. Conquer the liar by truth. (223)
Some people say Buddhism is not a religion; it is a system of philosophy. Others say it is neither a religion nor a philosophy, but simply a way of life. Still others say Buddhism is both a religion and a philosophy. Indeed, Buddhism can be either a religion or a philosophy, or it can be neither. It may even be called a science, a psychology, a way of life, and so on. To apply any of these terms may be either right or wrong according to what we mean by such terms. In other words, it depends on the usage and implication of the term in question. In any event, it does not matter what we call Buddhism. What really matters is why Buddhism is called so, i.e. what is meant by Buddhism. To decide what Buddhism is and is not, let us first consider some of its aspects.
Buddhism in essence is the truth, by which is meant the true nature of things, including, in particular, the various facts of life. These facts or phenomena are subject to the law of nature. And by the law of nature is meant the law of cause and effect. This law governs all phenomena, both physical and mental. When this law is discovered, the truth is realized, and one sees all things as they really are. Here is Buddhism discovered.
Once one sees things as they really are, one knows how to act upon them or what attitude to adopt toward them. He who knows the law of cause and effect knows how to avoid the undesired effects and to bring about the desired ones through his choice of action toward the causes. In other words, he knows how to apply this knowledge of the law to his everyday life. It is the teaching on this applied knowledge that is called the ethics of Buddhism—the teaching on how to treat all things wisely and how to choose to act for the good both of oneself and of others. Intended for those who have not realized the truth for themselves, it serves as a course of training toward the realization of the truth.
Any person who has discovered the truth and makes it known to the world is called a Buddha, an Enlightened or Awakened One. His dual position is that of the discoverer and teacher. He cannot realize the truth for anyone else. He can only point out the way to the realization of the truth. The truth is to be realized by each one for oneself. But a man can follow what his teacher teaches him, that is to say, he must undergo the training himself. This is how the Buddha can help humankind. But he can in no way save a man. Everyone must save himself. Once the training course is completed, one reaches the goal. One realizes the truth for oneself, thereby becoming a sort of Buddha oneself.
Therefore, in order to realize the truth each person must make an effort for himself. One is responsible for oneself. Throughout the training course—or the Path as it is called—there is no intervention from outside. There is a lot for him to do, but all are lessons for training. There is nothing that can be called a commandment. Even a precept is merely a training rule the trainee takes upon himself by his own choice. The trainees can practice the teaching at various levels according to their maturity. In a nutshell, the course, or the Path, consists of three main levels: morality, concentration and wisdom. Wisdom is the crown jewel or key virtue of Buddhism, because it is only through the knowledge of things as they really are that one realizes the truth, has the perfectly right attitude to life and to the world, and becomes free. One has thus purified oneself and gained freedom.
Freedom and purity are the automatic outcomes of perfect wisdom. Because through perfect wisdom, or the knowledge of the truth, one knows all things as they really are, and as a result, has no attachment to them. Selfishness is completely eradicated. One becomes independent and is no longer tainted by anything in the world. With the mind cleared through purity, the trained and liberated one looks upon suffering beings with compassion. He accordingly tries to help his fellow beings out of sorrow—from which he has been freed—to attain the state of purity and freedom as he himself has. His attitude to life and to the world is that of independence, detachment and freedom, while to his fellow beings it is that of boundless love and compassion. He who has reached freedom reaches the goal. He becomes a perfect man, with purity, wisdom and compassion as his main characteristics.
As the goal can be reached only through true knowledge, the Buddhist attitude to the world is the acceptance of the truth at every level of the training. A Buddhist must face bravely any fact of life whether desirable or not, and try to solve a problem through properly dealing with its cause; he must never deceive himself. This is his attitude to life and to the world.
To himself he is responsible for his own salvation. He must develop a sense of duty. He must be dutiful and earnest. There is no Being sitting in judgment of his right or wrong. It is the natural law of cause and effect that governs his action. He makes his own destiny. As all beings are facing the common problems in life and wandering together through the same cycle of life, they are friends and relatives. Though one cannot realize the truth and gain freedom for another, one can still guide and encourage others. The more one has made progress along the Path, the more one can render help to one’s fellow beings.
If Buddhism is to be called a religion, it is one with no God, no Saviour, no prayers, no priests, and no commandments. If it is to be called a system of philosophy, it is one which teaches dependence not on reason, but on direct knowledge of life experiences.
And now you can decide for yourself what Buddhism is, and what it is not.
ข้อเขียนทั้งหลายในหนังสือนี้ ที่เกิดเป็นเล่มหนังสือขึ้นดังปรากฏ กล่าวได้เต็มปากว่า สำเร็จด้วยน้ำใจปรารถนาดีของ รศ. ดร. สมศีล ฌานวังศะ ราชบัณฑิต ซึ่งได้แสดงออกตั้งแต่คิดริเริ่ม รวบรวม จัดการ และดำเนินการ จนเสร็จเป็นเล่มสมบูรณ์
ข้อเขียนที่กล่าวเหล่านั้น เกิดขึ้นในโอกาสต่างๆ กระจายกว้างในช่วงเวลายาวมากถึง ๒๕ ปี (พ.ศ. ๒๕๑๒-๒๕๓๗ หรือ ค.ศ. ๑๙๖๙-๑๙๙๔) แต่ส่วนมากเขียนเมื่อไปบรรยายในอเมริกา ในบางช่วงของเวลา ๙ ปี ระหว่างพ.ศ. ๒๕๑๕-๒๕๒๓ เมื่อใช้งานในคราวนั้นๆ แล้ว ก็เหมือนปล่อยทิ้งไปเลย แม้บางเรื่องจะมีการตีพิมพ์บ้าง ก็เป็นการริเริ่มของผู้อื่น เช่นเรื่อง "Foundations of Buddhist Social Ethics" ที่ University of South Carolina Press นำไปจัดพิมพ์รวมในหนังสือ Ethics, Wealth and Salvation: A Study in Buddhist Social Ethics เมื่อปี ๑๙๙๙ (เรื่องเดียวกันนี้ สถาบันไทยคดีศึกษา มหาวิทยาลัยธรรมศาสตร์ เคยนำไปเผยแพร่ในขอบเขตหนึ่ง เมื่อปี ๒๕๒๖) งานส่วนใหญ่ยังคงนอนเงียบและกระจัดกระจายอยู่จนกระทั่ง ดร. สมศีล ฌานวังศะ รวบรวมจัดพิมพ์ขึ้นคราวนี้
แท้จริง ผู้เขียนเองมิใช่จะไม่ใส่ใจงานเหล่านี้เสียเลย ได้นึกไว้ตั้งแต่แรกว่าควรจะยกขึ้นมาปรับปรุงและใช้งานหรือพิมพ์เผยแพร่ แต่แล้วเวลาก็ผ่านล่วงไปกับงานด้านอื่นอย่างรวดเร็ว ไม่มีเวลานึกถึงอีก ครั้นนานเข้าก็ค่อนข้างจะลืม เหมือนว่าละทิ้ง ดีแต่ว่าได้เก็บใส่แฟ้มไว้และยังคงอยู่อย่างเดิม
การที่ผู้เขียนเองวางทิ้งงานเหล่านี้เสียนั้น เป็นเรื่องที่เป็นไปเอง เนื่องจากใจมุ่งอยู่แต่จะทำงานหนังสือธรรมที่คิดไว้เดิมเป็นหลัก โดยเฉพาะสารานุกรมพุทธศาสน์ ซึ่งเมื่อทำไปๆ พอเห็นว่ายาวนักจะไม่อาจให้จบได้ ก็หันกลับมาตั้งรูปแบบใหม่และตั้งต้นอีกแล้วๆ เล่าๆ ๓ ครั้งแล้ว ก็ยังไม่จบสักฉบับเดียว งานนี้ทำให้ถืองานอื่น รวมทั้งการไปบรรยายต่างประเทศ เป็นเรื่องแทรกผ่าน พอให้เสร็จไปคราวหนึ่งๆ
แม้แต่ระหว่างไปอยู่ทำงานตามที่เขานิมนต์ในต่างประเทศ ก็กลายเป็นคอยหาเวลาอิสระที่นั่น มาใช้ทำงานหลักที่ติดค้างในเมืองไทย ทำไปทำมา งานค้างในเมืองไทยเอง ก็ได้แค่ครึ่งๆ กลางๆ ดังที่ สารานุกรมพุทธศาสน์ ยังค้างเติ่งอยู่จนบัดนี้ (ฉบับแรกจบ "บ" ฉบับที่ ๒ จบ "ต" ฉบับที่ ๓ จบ "ก") เสร็จออกมาเพียงงานแทรกที่คิดว่าพอจะใช้กันไปพลางๆ คือ พจนานุกรมพุทธศาสตร์ ฉบับประมวลธรรม และพจนานุกรมพุทธศาสน์ ฉบับประมวลศัพท์ กับหนังสือ พุทธธรรม ที่รอเวลามา ๒๐ กว่าปี ว่าจะเพิ่มเติมอีก ๔ บท
งานค้างทางเมืองไทยไม่เพียงทำให้ไม่ตั้งใจทำงานเมืองนอกเท่านั้น แต่ในที่สุดก็ตัดขาดงานด้านต่างประเทศไปทั้งหมด เพราะหลังจากไป Harvard ในพ.ศ. ๒๕๒๔ (ค.ศ. ๑๙๘๑) แล้ว ปีต่อมา ๒๕๒๕ เมื่อทาง Harvard ติดต่อจะนิมนต์อีก ก็ได้อ้างว่างานค้างมาก ยังไปไม่ได้ ปี ๒๖ ปี ๒๗ จะนิมนต์อีก งานไทยก็ยังค้างอีก เลยตกลงกันล่วงหน้าว่าคงจะไปได้ในปี ๒๕๓๐ แต่พอถึงเวลาเข้าจริง ก็ได้แค่บอกว่างานไม่เสร็จ ยังไปไม่ได้ และมาถึงบัดนี้ อีก ๒๐ ปี ถึงพ.ศ. ๒๕๕๐ งานเมืองไทยก็ยังค้างอยู่นั่นเอง
ญาติโยมช่วยกันสร้างวัดญาณเวศกวันถวายเพื่อฟื้นฟูสุขภาพให้มีกำลังมีเวลา กับทั้งสภาพแวดล้อมอันเป็นสัปปายะที่จะทำงานค้างตามปรารถนาได้เต็มที่ งานเล็กงานน้อยอย่างอื่นเพิ่มขึ้นมาตามกาลเวลา ก็ได้เตือนกันให้ระวัง มิให้ไปหลงทำงาน สุครีพถอนต้นรัง แต่เวลาก็ยังไม่พออยู่นั่นเอง
งานด้านต่างประเทศนั้น ไม่เพียงหยุดเลิกไปเท่านั้น แม้แต่เวลาที่จะเล่าหรือพูดถึงสิ่งที่ได้ไปพบเห็นมาก็ไม่มี ทั้งที่นึกอยู่ว่ามีอะไรน่าคิดมากมายที่ควรเล่าให้ญาติโยมและคนไทยฟัง มีหลุดออกมาเพราะมีเหตุจำเพาะให้พูดเพียง ๒ ครั้ง คือ ครั้งแรก ดร. ชาย โพธิสิตา ขอสัมภาษณ์ลงตีพิมพ์ในนิตยสารพุทธจักร ในชื่อเรื่องว่า "ความคิดเกี่ยวกับการพระศาสนาที่ได้ไปเห็นมา" (พ.ศ. ๒๕๑๕) กับอีกครั้งหนึ่ง คณะครุศาสตร์ จุฬาลงกรณ์มหาวิทยาลัย นิมนต์ไปพูด เกิดเป็นหนังสือชื่อ มองอเมริกา มาแก้ปัญหาไทย (บรรยายในวันคล้ายวันสถาปนาคณะครุศาสตร์ จุฬาลงกรณ์มหาวิทยาลัย ครบรอบ ๒๕ ปี ๑๐ ก.ค. ๒๕๒๕, พิมพ์ครั้งแรก พ.ศ. ๒๕๒๖)
สิ่งที่พลอยเงียบหายไปด้วยเพราะการมองแต่งานทางเมืองไทย ก็คือการติดต่อสื่อสาร พอกลับถึงเมืองไทย หันมามุ่งทำงานที่ค้างเต็มเวลา ก็เหมือนตัดทุกอย่างทางต่างประเทศไปทันทีและตลอดไป ยิ่งกว่านั้น แม้ในเมืองไทยเอง นับแต่พ.ศ. ๒๕๓๐ เป็นต้นมา เมื่อผ่าตัดเส้นเลือดใหญ่สู่สมอง (carotid artery) เส้นข้างซ้ายแล้ว ก็ตัดการออกไปแสดงธรรมหรือบรรยายนอกวัดหมดสิ้น
แท้จริงนั้น เมื่อไปพักในต่างประเทศ นอกจากศาสนกิจคืองานแล้ว อีกด้านหนึ่งที่ต้องเกี่ยวข้องเคียงคู่กัน ก็คือบุคคล ทั้งผู้เดินทางไปด้วยจากเมืองไทย ที่ช่วยทำหน้าที่เป็นลูกศิษย์ และผู้อยู่ที่นั่นอันเรียกได้ว่าเป็นเจ้าถิ่น ซึ่งมีทั้งคนไทยและคนอเมริกัน
ผู้ที่เรียกว่าเป็นลูกศิษย์จากเมืองไทย ครั้งไป Swarthmore (พ.ศ. ๒๕๑๙) คือ คุณบุญเลิศ โพธินี และครั้งไป Harvard (พ.ศ. ๒๕๒๔) คือ อาจารย์โสม ได้รัตน์ (ครั้งแรก เมื่อไปที่ Pennsylvania พ.ศ. ๒๕๑๕ ทางฝ่ายเจ้าถิ่นมอบหมายให้คุณ Mike อดีต Peace Corps volunteer ที่เมืองไทย ทำหน้าที่ติดตามดูแล จึงไม่ต้องเตรียมลูกศิษย์จากเมืองไทย) คุณบุญเลิศ โพธินี มีอายุแก่กว่าผู้เขียนเพียงเล็กน้อย แต่อาจารย์ โสม ได้รัตน์ แก่กว่าผู้เขียนประมาณ ๒๐ ปี
สำหรับการไปครั้งแรก ที่ Philadelphia (พ.ศ. ๒๕๑๕) จำได้เพียงว่าถูกผู้ใหญ่กำหนดตัว แต่แน่นอนว่า บุคคลที่มีบทบาทสำคัญในเรื่องนี้ตลอดกระบวนการ ก็คือ อาจารย์คลอสเนอร์ (Mr. William J. Klausner) แห่งมูลนิธิเอเชีย ซึ่งเป็นองค์กรที่ช่วยอุปถัมภ์มหาวิทยาลัยสงฆ์ตลอดเวลายาวนานในระยะที่ยังไม่ได้รับการรับรองจากราชการไทย
เวลาตลอดทั้งหมดแห่งศาสนกิจในอเมริกานั้น เป็นช่วงกาลแห่งความเอื้อเฟื้อเกื้อกูล ในบรรยากาศแห่งความมีน้ำใจไมตรี ที่ระลึกถึงด้วยความชื่นบานสดใสและรื่นเย็นสบายอบอุ่นใจ
ใกล้ที่สุด คือ Professor Dr. Donald K. Swearer ซึ่งเป็นผู้มีน้ำใจงามยิ่ง นอกจากเอาใจใส่จัดเตรียมความเป็นอยู่ทั่วไปให้เป็นสัปปายะแล้ว ก็ติดตามดูแลให้ได้รับความสะดวกทุกอย่าง ไม่เพียงพาลูกศิษย์พระไปให้รู้จักตลาดที่จะซื้อหาข้าวของตั้งแต่ต้น ต่อนั้นยังนัดพาไปหาซื้อของที่ต้องการเป็นประจำ แม้แต่ในเรื่องเล็กๆ น้อยๆ เช่น เมื่อผู้เขียนยกเรื่องที่ค้างจากเมืองไทยขึ้นมาทำ Dr. Swearer ก็นำลูกศิษย์ (ฝรั่ง) พากันไปยืมและขนพระไตรปิฎกบาลี ฉบับสยามรัฐ เกือบทั้งชุด จาก Harvard University Library มาไว้ในที่พัก เพื่อให้ผู้เขียนใช้ได้สะดวก
ในทางวิชาการ Dr. Swearer ซึ่งเป็นบุคคลที่รู้จักกันดีที่สุดท่านหนึ่งในวงการการศึกษาพระพุทธศาสนาในอเมริกา (ปัจจุบันเป็น Director of the Center for the Study of World Religions, Harvard University) ได้แสดงความปรารถนาดีโดยเป็นสื่อความรู้จัก และเป็นจุดเริ่มความสนใจที่ทำให้มีการนิมนต์ผู้เขียนไปแสดงปาฐกถาในที่ต่างๆ เช่น Oberlin College ใน Ohio, Haverford College ใน Philadelphia ตลอดจน Asia Society ใน New York City
ข้างนอกออกไป ในถิ่นใกล้เคียงโดยรอบวิทยาลัยและมหาวิทยาลัย ญาติโยมคนไทยและนักศึกษาไทยหลายคนหมั่นมาเยี่ยมเยียน นำภัตตาหารมาถวายสม่ำเสมอ ถึงวันหยุด บ้างก็มาพาลูกศิษย์ไปเที่ยวชมให้รู้จักสถานที่และการเดินทาง บางท่านอุปถัมภ์จริงจังมาก พอจะมีการเดินทางไกลไปที่ไหน ก็ส่งตั๋วเครื่องบินมาทั้งสำหรับถวายพระคือผู้เขียน และให้แก่ลูกศิษย์
เมื่อไปพักที่วัด ทั้งที่วัดวชิรธรรมปทีป เมืองนิวยอร์ก และที่วัดธรรมาราม เมืองชิคาโก พระก็เต็มใจช่วยงาน ญาติโยมก็อุปถัมภ์บำรุง ถึงพักอยู่ไกลก็ขวนขวายไปรับมาเทศน์ โดยเฉพาะในวันสำคัญทางพระพุทธศาสนา ไม่ขาดไม่เว้น
ทั้งที่มีศรัทธาเปี่ยมน้ำใจไมตรีและเกื้อกูลอย่างดีถึงเพียงนี้ แต่พอนิมนต์อีก ก็ผัดเพี้ยนอยู่นั่นจนเลิกราไปเองในที่สุด ทั้งหมดนี้ก็อย่างที่กล่าวแล้วข้างต้นว่ามัวมุ่งรอทำงานค้างทางเมืองไทยให้เสร็จ ซึ่งก็คือมองไม่เห็นวันที่จะเสร็จเลยนั่นอง แต่ก็บอกได้ว่า แท้จริงนั้น ได้ตระหนักดีถึงน้ำใจและมองเห็นความสำคัญแห่งความปรารถนาดีของทุกท่าน
เมื่อทุกอย่างเงียบอยู่ ก็ปล่อยอะไรๆ เรื่อยไปก่อนได้ แต่เมื่อในด้านงานมีการจัดทำขึ้น แล้วงานปรากฏตัวเป็นหนังสือออกมา เหมือนทำลายความเงียบ เรื่องเดิมที่พ่วงกันอยู่ คือด้านบุคคล ก็ควรมีการแสดงออกพร้อมด้วย
จึงเห็นว่าหนังสือนี้จะสมบูรณ์ ก็ต่อเมื่อได้กล่าวโยงไปถึงบุคคลที่เกี่ยวข้องและบรรยากาศที่งานเกิดขึ้น โดยขออภัยในส่วนที่เป็นการรีรอขัดข้อง และขออนุโมทนาความมีน้ำใจอุปถัมภ์เกื้อกูลอย่างจริงจัง อันช่วยให้ศาสนกิจสัมฤทธิ์ผลลุล่วงไปได้ และขอให้ทุกท่านเจริญกุศลประสบจตุรพิธพรทั่วกัน
พระพรหมคุณาภรณ์ (ป. อ. ปยุตฺโต)
๑๖ กันยายน ๒๕๕๐
The appearance of the writings contained herein in book form as they now do, I can say without reservation, was brought to fruition in a spirit of goodwill by Associate Professor Dr. Somseen Chanawangsa, Fellow of the Royal Institute of Thailand. Not only did he initiate the idea, but he also gathered the materials, managed the project and saw the book through the press.
The writing of these essays occurred on different occasions widely distributed over a very long span of up to 25 years (1969–1994). Nevertheless, they were mostly written when I was giving lectures in the United States during some parts of the nine-year period from 1969 to 1981. Once having served the given purposes, these writings were seemingly left behind. Even though some of them got published at all, it was the initiative of other people. For instance, the essay “Foundations of Buddhist Social Ethics,” included in Ethics, Wealth and Salvation: A Study in Buddhist Social Ethics, was published by the University of South Carolina Press in 1999. (The same essay was also disseminated to a certain extent by Thammasat University’s Thai Khadi Research Institute in 1983.) The majority of them, however, lay dormant and scattered until Dr. Somseen Chanawangsa gathered them for this publication.
In fact, it was not the case that I had never paid any attention to these writings. From the very outset there was an idea that they should be revised and put to use, or published. Time elapsed quickly with other work going on so that there was no time left for me to think about them. The longer the time passed, the more they tended to sink into oblivion, as if abandoned altogether. Fortunately, they were all properly filed and therefore remained intact.
It was only natural for me to leave these writings behind, as I was primarily focused on some previously conceived book projects on the Dhamma. In particular, after some time into the project to compile an Encyclopedia of Buddhism, when I realized that it would be too lengthy to be completed, I switched to a new format and started from scratch. I had done this off and on for three times already, yet not a single volume had been finished. Due to this project alone, all other work, including giving lectures abroad, had to take a back seat, becoming a sideline to be taken care of on each particular occasion.
Even during my invitation visits to give lectures abroad, it turned out that I kept looking for free time there to work on the major projects left unfinished in Thailand. Eventually, the work still outstanding in Thailand itself could only be half-finished. A case in point was The Encyclopedia of Buddhism, which has been left in limbo until now. (The first version covered up to the end of the letter “บ,” the second version ended with the letter “ต,” and the third version ended with the letter “ก.”) Only a couple of sideline projects came out, which were presumably adequate for provisional use. They were the bilingual Dictionary of Buddhism with Numerical Dhammas and the monolingual Dictionary of Buddhist Terms. As for the book Buddhadhamma, I have now been waiting for over twenty years just to add four more chapters to the existing volume.
The projects still outstanding in Thailand not only distracted my attention from the work abroad, but eventually they even made me cut off all my work on the foreign front. After the trip to Harvard in 1981, when I was contacted for another invitation from the University the following year, my excuse was that I had so much unfinished work to do that I could not make the trip. Two more contacts for invitations came in 1983 and 1984, yet the work in Thailand remained outstanding. It was therefore agreed in advance that I should be able to make it in 1987. When the time actually came, I could but tell them that the work here was still unfinished. Even until now—twenty years later—in 2007, my work in Thailand has not yet been finished.
A group of lay devotees joined hands in building Wat Nyanavesakavan for my rehabilitation so that I would have the energy and time as well as a favorable ambience to devote all my effort to the unfinished projects as I wished. However, as time went by, there arose more and more petty chores. I could only remind everybody not to get sidetracked like the proverbial Sukhrip [in Ramakian, the Thai version of Ramayana] exhausting himself pulling out a big tree. Even so, there was still not enough time.
As for work on the foreign front, not only did I quit everything, but I did not even have the time to tell or talk about what I had seen and experienced there, despite bearing in mind that there was a lot of food for thought that was worth telling the lay devotees and Thai people in general. Nevertheless, there were only two specific occasions when I had to break my public silence. On the first occasion, Dr. Chai Podhisita interviewed me for publication in the monthly magazine Buddhacakra under the title “Reflections on the Buddhist affairs I have witnessed” (1972). On the other occasion, the Faculty of Education, Chulalongkorn University, invited me to give a lecture, which culminated in a book entitled Looking to America to Solve Thailand’s Problems (a special lecture given on the 25th anniversary of Chulalongkorn University’s Faculty of Education, July 10, 1982, first published 1983.)
One collateral casualty of my preoccupation with the work in Thailand was staying in touch. Once back in Thailand, I turned my attention to working full time on the unfinished projects, in effect as if severing my foreign ties abruptly and for good. Moreover, even here in Thailand, since 1997, when I underwent surgery on the left carotid artery, I have declined all invitations to give sermons or lectures outside my monastery.
In fact, during my residence abroad, apart from the religious duties, i.e. the work itself, the other front I had something to do with in tandem was the human front—the persons from Thailand accompanying me on the trips to serve as my lay companions, and the people residing over there who might be called the local hosts, both Thai and American.
The so-called lay companions from Thailand were Mr. Boonlert Bodhini, on the trip to Swarthmore in 1976, and Ajahn Soam Dairat, on the trip to Swarthmore in 1981. (On the first trip, to Pennsylvania in 1972, the host assigned Michael [whose last name I have regrettably forgotten], a returned Peace Corps volunteer from Thailand, to be the escort so that no lay companion from Thailand was needed. Mr. Boonlert is a bit older than me, while Ajahn Soam was some twenty years my senior.
As for my first trip, to Philadelphia in 1972, all I can now recall is that I was handpicked by the senior monks [at my Buddhist University]. Nonetheless, what I know for certain is that the person playing a crucial part in the entire process was Mr. William J. Klausner, of the Asia Foundation, the organization lending support to the Buddhist University over a long period when the University had not yet been legally recognized by the Thai government authorities.
Throughout the time spent on my religious duties in America, it was a period of generosity and support, and an ambience of thoughtfulness and friendliness, which I can recall in bright and cheerful mood, in cool and comfort, as well as with warm feelings in my heart.
The closest person was Professor Dr. Donald K. Swearer, who was wondrously thoughtful. Apart from taking care in arranging favorable living conditions in general, he was attentive to providing all the convenience. Not only did he show the monk’s lay companion where to shop at the outset, but he regularly took him to buy what was needed later on. Even in trivial matters, when I resumed work on an unfinished project from Thailand, Dr. Swearer took his American students to the Harvard University Library to check out almost the entire set of the Royal Siamese Version of the Pali Tipitaka and left them at my residence just for convenience of use.
On the academic front, Dr. Swearer, one of the best known figures in Buddhist studies in the United States (currently Director of Harvard University’s Center for the Study of World Religions) expressed his goodwill by introducing me to other people, which aroused their interest and led to the invitations for me to give lectures at such institutions as Oberlin College in Ohio, Haverford College in Philadelphia and the Asia Society in New York City.
Extramurally, in the environs of the college and the universities, a number of Thai devotees and students paid me a visit on a regular basis, making food offerings. When it was a holiday, some came over to pick up my lay companion and show him around so that he could get to know the various places and means of transportation. Some were very enthusiastic in lending their support. When I was to travel a long distance, plane tickets would be sent not only to me but also to my lay companion.
When I went to stay in the monasteries, both at Wat Vajiradhammapadip in New York and at Wat Dhammaram in Chicago, the monks were willing to assist me in my work, and the lay devotees were also very supportive. Even though I was staying quite a long way away from them, they never failed to go all out to bring me to their place for a sermon, especially on major Buddhist holidays.
Despite such a high degree of faith, thoughtfulness, friendliness and support, when I got an invitation, I kept postponing it until they finally gave up the idea. As mentioned above, all this was due to my focus on waiting to finish up the projects still outstanding in Thailand—for which the date of completion is nowhere in sight. Even so, I can say that I am in fact well aware of the thoughtfulness and appreciate the goodwill of everybody.
When everything remained dormant, it would seem all right to let them be the way they were. But once something was done on the work front, which emerged in the form of a book, as if to break the silence, what was originally related, namely the human front, should also be given expression at the same time.
It was therefore deemed that this book would not be complete without referring to the people involved and the ambience in which the work took place. I would like to express my apologies for all the hesitancy and disruptions, and also my appreciation for the thoughtfulness, and enthusiastic support and assistance. May all prosper in their merit and be blessed with the four boons of life—longevity, radiance, happiness and strength.
Phra Brahmagunabhorn (P. A. Payutto)
September 16, 2007
The present volume is a collection of my Buddhist writings in English on different occasions over a span of some twenty-five years.
Upon learning that although some of the writings were already published, their circulation was confined to a relatively narrow circle of readers, while others were still unpublished, Dr. Somseen Chanawangsa, Fellow of the Royal Institute of Thailand, came up with the idea of gathering them into a single volume for ease of reference.
Here is a brief account of their sources:
The first paper, “Peace Through Freedom and Happiness,” was the acceptance speech delivered in Paris on the occasion of receiving the UNESCO’s Prize for Peace Education on December 20, 1994.
The second paper, “Foundations of Buddhist Social Ethics” was originally entitled “Foundations of Buddhist Social Ethics in Contemporary Thailand” and subsequently published in Thailand under the title “Social Dimension of Buddhism in Contemporary Thailand.” It was a commissioned paper presented on June 19, 1981, at the “Moral Values in Comparative Perspective” conference, which was sponsored by the Berkeley/Harvard Cooperative Program in Comparative Religion, and held at the Graduate Theological Union, UC Berkeley, June 17–20, 1981. The essay then appeared as the sole chapter of the first section in Ethics, Wealth and Salvation: A Study in Buddhist Social Ethics, edited by Russell F. Sizemore and Donald K. Swearer, and published by the University of South Carolina Press in 1989. Also included in the present collection is the original volume editors’ section introduction.
The third paper, “Tradition and Change in Thai Buddhism,” was published as a Perspectives article in Harvard University’s Center for the Study of World Religions Bulletin for the Fall of 1981. It was the keynote address delivered on Wednesday, May 27, 1981, for the Center’s First Annual Associates’ Day, the subject of which was “Buddhism in Southeast Asia, Prospects and Dilemmas.”
The next three papers (4–6) were prepared during my teaching at Harvard University in the spring term of 1981. They were handouts for the course entitled “History of Religion 178. Contemporary Buddhism in South East Asia: The Sangha in Thailand.” offered by the Divinity School, which was the same course offered by the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, but under the title “Religion 178. Contemporary Buddhism in South East Asia: The Sangha in Thailand.” The course was taught by Professor Donald K. Swearer while a portion of sessions was exclusively set aside for me as a visiting scholar and guest lecturer at the University’s Center for the Study of World Religions. These handouts were given to students during my own sessions. They are as follows:
The seventh paper, “Applications and Meanings of the Term Dhamma,” was originally prepared as a handout for the Pali class at Vajiradhammapadip Temple in New York in 1977.
The next three papers (8–10) were handouts given to students at Swarthmore College, Pennsylvania, in 1976. They are as follows:
The next three papers (11–13) were prepared for the Confrontation of Cultures Program at the University of Pennsylvania’s University Museum, April 5–May 4, 1972. They are as follows:
The last paper, “Some Basic Concepts of Buddhism,” first appeared as a short article in the Dhammaduta Magazine, Vol. 1 (January–March 2502) issued in Bangkok in 1969 by the Training Institute for Dhammaduta Going Abroad.
Although varied in scope and content, these papers, some of which have been slightly revised for accuracy, clarity and consistency, should hopefully contribute to a better understanding of Buddhist teachings in general and Thai Buddhism in particular.
I hereby would like to thank Dr. Somseen Chanawangsa for his efforts in putting together all these writings in book form and getting the volume published.
Bhikkhu P. A. Payutto
(Phra Brahmagunabhorn)
September 2007
In romanizing technical terms and proper names of Pali and Sanskrit origins, there have developed different practices over the many years since Buddhism became known to the West. Here are some general observations on such practices.
1. Use and non-use of diacritics. When precision in transliteration is called for, especially when chunks of scriptural texts are cited, diacritics are needed. For example, the underdot ( ̣) is primarily used to distinguish the retroflex (or cerebral) series ṭ, ṭh, ḍ, ḍh, and ṇ from their respective dental counterparts t, th, d, dh and n. Without the underdot, ambiguity can occur, e.g. vaṭṭa “round of rebirth” vs. vatta “observance,” which might lead to confusion and misinterpretation when the word in question is cited without context.
However, due to typographic difficulties, many publishers omit diacritics altogether. Thus, we find, for instance, nibbana alongside nibbāna, and sangha as opposed to saṅgha. Two digraphs are sometimes used in place of consonants with diacritics. For instance, nyana is actually ñāṇa “direct knowledge.” The ny in this case is meant to be a digraph for ñ, and must not be confused with the regular ny cluster as in Nyāya, in Hindu philosophy. Similarly, the digraph sh are sometimes used in place of either ś as in Ashoka (= Aśoka) or ṣ as in moksha (= mokṣa).
2. Variants in transliteration. For the same Pali or Sanskrit letter, variants in transliteration might occur. In particular, the Pali niggahīta, or nasal consonant ŋ, is also transliterated as ṁ and ṃ. Likewise, some writers use the simple n not only for the dental nasal, but also for the velar (or gutteral) nasal even when all words are otherwise fully spelled with diacritics, e.g. sankhāra as opposed to saṅkhāra.
3. Direct borrowings in English. Several Buddhist terms have been so frequently used by English speakers as to warrant their inclusion in the English lexicon as permanent loanwords. For instance, nirvana, sutra and tripitaka, which can be found in most unabridged general-purpose dictionaries, are from the Sanskrit nirvāṇa, sūtra and tripiṭaka, respectively. In such cases, the use of diacritics is considered to be no longer necessary.
4. Anglicization. Like most loan words, Buddhist terms from Pali and Sanskrit tend to be anglicized in pronunciation. For instance, the word jnana (Sanskrt: jñāna) “direct knowledge” is pronounced as /dʒəˈnɑːnə/. Some of such terms in more common use have been further anglicized in morphology as well, as evidenced from the fact that they can take English derivational suffixes. Apart from Buddhism, Buddhist and Buddhahood (from the Pali and Sanskrit buddha + -ism, -ist and -hood, respectively), we find karmic (from the Sanskrit karma + -ic), and Arhatship, (from the Sanskrit arhat + -ship). Perhaps even more productive is the inflectional plural suffix -s, which can be found freely added to borrowings, whether permanent or not. Among writers who adopt this practice, sometimes only the Pali or Sanskrit stems, with or without diacritics, are italicized while the suffix -s is set in roman type. This typographic convention seems to be especially observed when the permanent status as loanword of the term in question is still in doubt; hence, jātakas “birth-stories” and devas “deities,” as opposed to Buddhas, whose permanent loanword status has been established.
5. Sanskrit forms and their Pali counterparts. Owing to Western scholars’ prior interest in the study of Sanskrit and Hinduism, the Buddhist names and terms that first entered the English language were almost exclusively Sanskrit. In earlier books on Buddhism, and even in today’s publications, especially on Mahayana Buddhism, Sanskrit forms are predominantly used throughout. However, there has been a growing tendency among scholars in Theravada Buddhism to replace Sanskrit forms with their Pali counterparts. For example, Siddhattha, Gotama, dhamma, kamma and nibbana (or nibbāna) are preferred to Siddhartha (or Siddhārtha), Gautama, dharma, karma and nirvana (or nirvāṇa), respectively.
With these observations in mind, the reader may find in the present volume both Pali and Sanskrit forms, e.g. kamma and karma. The Sanskrit forms are more prevalent in earlier works, while the Pali forms are to be found in more recent works, which reflects the current trend mentioned above. In addition, diacritics will only be used for more specific technical terms, e.g. paṭiccasamuppāda. Those words deemed to be familiar to most Buddhists are spelled without diacritics, e.g. nibbana and Theravada.
Not unrelated to the romanization of Pali and Sanskrit borrowings in English, there is a problem of how to romanize proper names in Thai.
It is all too well known that different people, Thais and Westerners alike, might spell the same name differently, in some cases according to their own system, but in most cases without any system at all. The problem is further complicated by the fact that many Thai proper names contain elements of Pali and Sanskrit origins. Some people, even with a slight knowledge of these two languages, might be tempted to spell such names as closely as possible to their original forms, e.g. Ayudhya rather than Ayutthaya. To cite another example, for the name ประยุทธ์ might be found Prayuddh, Prayudh, Prayoot and Prayut, reflecting different degrees of modification and mixture between etymologically-driven transliteration and pure transcription.
As far as standards for the romanization of Thai words and names are concerned, the Royal Institute’s system is worth considering for two reasons. It is systematic enough to guarantee the uniform romanized spelling of every Thai word. In addition, as the official system sanctioned by the government authorities, it is used for the great majority of place names in Thailand, and has thus gained wide currency. However, one major shortcoming of this system, which is based on transcriptional principles with a view to facilitating keyboarding, is oversimplification. The neutralization of the five different tones, of short and long vowels, and of different consonants sharing the same phoneme often results in ambiguities. To cite a rather extreme case, the romanized form sap may represent as many as ten words: ซาบ, ทราบ, สาบ, สาป, ซับ, ทรัพย์, สับ, ศัพท์, สรรพ, and สัพ. In this light, while the Royal Institute’s system is generally followed as far as possible, modifications can also be found in the present volume to get round both extremes of transliteration and transcription. Thus, the romanized form Sārd for สารท is felt to be preferable to the ambiguous Sat, and the ecclesiastical title พรหมคุณาภรณ์ spelled as Brahmagunabhorn looks more appropriate than either the heavily etymologically-driven Brahamagunabharana or the purely phonetic Phrom Khunaphon.
Finally, there remains a problem of whether and when to capitalize technical terms. Again, in books on Buddhism published over the years there have been discrepancies and sometimes inconsistencies in the capitalization of technical terms. We find, for example, the Law of Karma alongside the law of cause and effect.
In this volume, capitalization is kept to a minimum. Only those terms that might otherwise not be properly understood in the given context will be capitalized, e.g. the Path, the Order, and the Dispensation.
Somseen Chanawangsa